Jupiter Planet

 Jupiter

   Planet

   What is the duration of Jupiter's revolution?

   When was the Jupiter ring discovered?

   Is Jupiter the largest planet in the solar system?

   What is Jupiter made of?

 

  

   Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system and the fifth planet from the Sun.  It is one of the brightest objects in the night sky.  Only the moon, Venus and sometimes Mars are more spectacular.

   Jupiter is photographed by Voyager 1.

   On February 1, 1979, Voyager 1 photographed Jupiter at a distance of 32.7 million kilometers (20.3 million miles).  Notable are the planet's pastel-shaded cloud bands and the Great Red Spot (lower center).

 

   When the ancient astronomers named the planet Jupiter for the gods and Roman rulers of the heavens (also known as Joo), they had no idea of ​​the actual dimensions of the planet, but the name is apt.  Because Jupiter is bigger than all the other planets.  It takes about 12 Earth years to orbit the Sun, and it revolves once every 10 hours, which is twice as fast as the Earth.  Its colorful cloud band can also be seen through a small telescope.  It has a narrow system of circles and 79 known moons, one planet larger than Mercury and three larger than Earth's moon.  Some astronomers speculate that Jupiter's moon Europa is hidden beneath an icy layer of warm water - and possibly some kind of life.

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   Jupiter is the source of internal heat.  It emits more energy than it receives from the sun.  The pressure inside it is so high that the hydrogen in it is in a liquid metal state.  This giant has the strongest magnetic field on any planet, whose magnetic sphere is so large that if viewed from Earth, its apparent diameter would be greater than that of the moon.  Jupiter's system is also a source of intense radio noise explosion, with some frequently emitting more energy than the sun.  However, despite all its superior properties, Jupiter is almost entirely composed of only two elements, hydrogen and helium, and its average density does not exceed the density of water.

   View images of Jupiter taken from the Long Horse Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) aboard the New Horizons spacecraft

   View of Jupiter from images taken by the Long Horizons Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) aboard the New Horizons spacecraft.

 

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   The search for three spacecraft missions since the mid-1970s has led to a dramatic increase in information about the Jovian system - Pioneers 10 and 11 in 1973-74, Voyagers 1 and 2 in 1979, and Galileo Orbiter and  probe, which arrived in Jupiter.  December 1995  The Pioneer spacecraft acted as scouts for Voyagers, showing that Jupiter's radiation atmosphere is tolerable and mapping important features of the planet and its atmosphere.  The sheer number of Voyager devices and the growing sophistication provided so much new information that it was still being analyzed at the start of the Galileo mission.  All previous missions were fly-twenty, but Galileo launched an investigation into Jupiter's atmosphere and then went into orbit around the planet until September 2003 to investigate the entire system.  Last two years.  Other views of the Juvenile system were provided by the Cassini spacecraft toward Saturn in the late 2000's and early 2001's, and in 2007 via the Pluto via the New Horizons spacecraft's flyby.  Observations of the effects of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9's scattered nucleus with Jupiter's atmosphere in 1994 also revealed its structure and composition.

   Jupiter's crescent view

   Jupiter's crescent scene, a collection of three images taken by Voyager 1 on March 24, 1979.

 

   Jupiter has an equatorial diameter of about 143,000 kilometers (88,900 miles) and orbits the Sun at an average distance of 778 million kilometers (483 million miles).  The table shows additional physical and orbital data for Jupiter.  Of particular interest is the planet's low average density of 1.33 grams per cubic centimeter - in contrast to Earth's 5.52 grams per cubic centimeter - combined with its large dimensions and massive and short rotation periods.  The low density and large mass indicate that the structure and composition of Jupiter is in stark contrast to that of the Earth and other inner planets, a reduction that is supported by a detailed study of the giant planet's atmosphere and interior.

   Planetary data for Jupiter

   * The planet needs more time to return to the same position in the sky than the sun, as seen from Earth.

   ** Calculated for the height at which atmospheric pressure is applied 1 time.

   Average distance from the sun 778,340,821 km (5.2 AU)

   The eccentricity of the orbit is 0.048

   Tilt of the orbit towards the lunar eclipse 1.3

   Juvenile year (side period of revolution) 11.86 Earth years

   Visual Intensity Average Opposition at .2.70

   Mean synodic period * 398.88 Earth days

   The average orbital speed is 13.1 kilometers per second

   Equatorial radius ** 71,492 km

   Polar radius ** 66,854 km

   Mass 18.98 × 1026 kg

   Average density 1.33 g / cm3

   Gravity ** 2,479 cm / sec2

   Escape speed 60.2 km per second

   Periods of rotation

   System I (10 سے from equator) 9 hours 50 minutes 30 seconds

   System II (high latitude) 9 hours 55 minutes 41 seconds

   System III (magnetic field) 9 hours 55 minutes 29 seconds

   Tilt the equator to 3.1

   Great Red Spot amplitude 20,000 × 12,000 km

   The magnetic field at the equator is 4.3 ga

   Number of known moons 66

   Planetary ring system 1 key ring;  3 Less dense ingredients

   Three rotation cycles are formed within minutes of each other.  The two periods, called System I (9 hours 50 minutes 30 seconds) and System II (9 hours 55 minutes 41 seconds), have average values ​​and refer to the speed of rotation at the equator and high latitude, respectively, as observed.  Shows.  In the visible layers of clouds on the planet.  Jupiter has no solid surface.  The transfer of liquids from the gaseous atmosphere to the interior takes place at great depths.  Thus the difference in the duration of rotation at different latitudes does not mean that the planet itself rotates at any of these average speeds.  In fact, the actual rotation time of Jupiter is System III (9 hours 55 minutes 29 seconds).  This is the period of rotation of Jupiter's magnetic field, first derived from ground-based observations on the radio wavelength (see below the radio emission) and confirmed by direct measurements of the spacecraft.  This period, which is continuous with 30 years of observation, applies to the large interior of the planet, where the magnetic field is formed.

   Space

   Clouds and great red spots

   Even a small telescope can show a lot of detail on Jupiter.  The region of the planet's atmosphere as seen from Earth consists of several different types of clouds that are separated vertically and horizontally.  Changes in these cloud systems can occur at intervals of a few hours, but a basic pattern of latitude currents has maintained its stability for decades.  It has become customary to describe the planet's appearance in terms of a standard name for its alternating dark bands, called belts, and bright bands, called zones.  However, the mainstream seems to have more persistence than this pattern.  For example, the Southern Hemisphere strip has disappeared several times and even disappeared completely (most recently in 2010), reappearing only months or years later.

   Jupiter's computer-generated compound

   Jupiter's computer-generated mixture shows the visible surface of the entire planet and its characteristic cloud band.  In the upper center of the image, there may be four small deep oval rows in a row in the upper atmosphere, which open up to reveal the cloud layers below.

   Computer-generated concept of Jupiter's tropical cloud layers

   Computer-generated imagery of a portion of Jupiter's tropical cloud layers, replicating a scene between layers.  In general, when viewed from space, Jupiter's cloud surfaces are topographically flat.  This false color image combines data from observations of the Galileo spacecraft on three wavelengths of infrared light, which are absorbed at different levels of the atmosphere, and thus information about cloud heights.  Provides which can be used to add relief to the surface.  The image creates a more complex real cloud layer in a simpler model with lower and lower and upper decks.  There is a small cloud formation just above the lower deck (presented in light blue).  To its left (in red-purple) is a "hotspot", a hole in the lower layer of the cloud into which the Galileo probe entered on December 7, 1995.

 

   Closer views of Jupiter moving to Earth via spacecraft show different shapes of clouds, including many elliptical features reminiscent of cyclonic and anticyclonic storm systems on Earth.  All of these systems are in motion, appearing and disappearing over time, varying in size and location.  There is also a difference in the pastel shades of different colors in the cloud layers - from brown to yellow, through brown and blue-gray, to the great red spot of the well-known salmon, to the largest spot on Jupiter.  , The most prominent, and the longest lasting feature.  The chemical differences in cloud composition, which astronomers consider to be the cause of color changes, are clearly due to the vertical and horizontal separation of the cloud system.

   False colored mosaic of the northern hemisphere of Jupiter

   Wrong-colored mosaic of part of Jupiter's northern hemisphere, created from images taken by the Galileo spacecraft on April 3, 1997.  The north is at the top.  More prominent features are the alternating bands of clouds moving east and west, white ellipses, black spots and turbulent whirlpools.  This scene is one of the first to show the different layers in Jupiter's atmosphere: haze in deep purple when the upper atmosphere clouds break, thin high clouds in light blue, dense high clouds in white, and low in the atmosphere.  Clouds appear in reddish colors.  .

 

   Juvenile meteorology can be compared to the global rotation of the Earth's atmosphere.  A large spiral cloud system on Earth is often spread over several latitudes and is associated with movement around high and low pressure areas.  These cloud systems are much less zonal than Jupiter's cloud systems and move in latitude as well as in latitude.  The local climate on Earth is often linked to the local environment, which determines the different nature of the planet's surface.

   False mosaic of great red spot

   Wrong color mosaic of two long-lived white eggs south of the Great Red Spot, collected from photographs taken by the Galileo spacecraft on February 19, 1997.  These colors represent the relative height and density of different clouds in Jupiter's atmosphere.  Light blue clouds, such as in the center of an egg, are high and thin.  The white clouds around the blue are at the same height but dense.  And above the ellipses there is a deep purple haze that reaches the stratosphere.

 

   Jupiter has no solid surface - hence, no topographic features - and the planet's massive rotation is dominated by latitudinal currents.  The lack of a solid surface with physical boundaries and regions with different thermal capacities makes the persistence of these currents and the associated cloud patterns even more remarkable.  The Great Red Spot, for example, moves longitudinally with respect to the planet's three rotating systems, yet it does not move in latitude.  White eggs found at latitude just south of the Great Red Spot exhibit this pattern.  White eggs of this size are not found anywhere on the planet.  Dark brown clouds, apparently with holes in the bottom of the black cloud, are found almost exclusively near latitude 18 ° N.  The strongest thermal emissions are found in blue-gray or purple regions found in the planet's equator.  Juno's observations revealed that the poles were covered in earth-sized storms.

 

   Despite extensive observations of Voyager, Galileo and Juno spacecraft, the exact nature of Jupiter's unique great red spot was still unknown at the beginning of the 21st century.  On a planet whose lifespan of cloud patterns is usually calculated in days, the Great Red Dot has been observed continuously since 1878 and may even be the same storm that was observed from 1665 to 1713.  Approximately 48,000 km (30,000 miles) from its maximum, space is shrinking by the end of the 19th century, and since 2012 the area, once defaultly elliptical, has become more rounded and 900  Kilometers (580 miles) are shrinking at a rapid rate per year.  Its current size is approximately 16,350 km (10,159 miles) wide, large enough to easily accommodate the Earth.  These large dimensions are probably responsible for the longevity of this feature and possibly its distinctive color.

   Great red spot

   The true color image of Jupiter's great red spot is taken by the Juno spacecraft.

 

   The duration of rotation of the Great Red Spot around the planet does not correspond to any of Jupiter's three orbital periods.  It represents a variable that has not been successfully associated with other Juvenile phenomena.  Voyager's observations revealed that matter inside the spacecraft rotates counterclockwise once every seven days, corresponding to winds of up to 400 kilometers (250 miles) per hour from the hurricane.  Voyager Images also recorded a large number of interactions between the Great Red Spots and very small current interruptions at the same latitude.  The interior of the space is remarkably quiet, with no clear evidence of the expected rise (or departure) of the material from the lower depths.

   Great red spot

   Jupiter's Great Red Spot (upper right) and surrounding area, as seen from Voyager 1 on March 1, 1979.  Below this space is one of the large white eggs associated with this feature.

 

   The Great Red Spot, therefore, appears to be a huge anticyclone, a whirlpool or an eddy with a diameter probably greater than the depth that allows this feature to reach below and above the critical layers of the cloud.  The red spot is heating up Jupiter's upper atmosphere from below and heating it up to hundreds of degrees, which would be expected only from solar heat.  The lower expansion of the spot remains to be observed.

   Jupiter's Great Red Spot

   Pictures of Jupiter's Great Red Spot and its surroundings, taken on Voyager 1, February 25, 1979.  To the left of the white egg, observed since the 1930s, and to the left of the Great Red Spot, there are numerous areas of turmoil.

 

   Cloud composition

   Jupiter's clouds form at different heights in the planet's atmosphere.  With the exception of the upper part of the Great Red Spot, white clouds are the highest, with a cloud top temperature of approximately 120 K (K ؛ 40240 ° F, or 50150 ° C).  These white clouds are composed of frozen ammonia crystals, thus resembling water clouds in the Earth's atmosphere.  Clouds that are widely distributed on the planet are at the lower levels.  They appear to form at temperatures of about 200 K (00100 ° F, −70 ° C), suggesting that they probably contain concentrated ammonium hydro sulfide and that their color is similar to other ammonia sulfur compounds.  Such as ammonium polysulfides.  .  Sulfur compounds are potentially referred to as dyeing agents because the universe contains relatively high sulfur and hydrogen sulfide is absent from the atmosphere of Jupiter, especially above the clouds.

   Jupiter: South Tropical Zone

   Jupiter's southern tropical zone was observed by the Juno spacecraft on May 19, 2017.  Small white clouds consist of water and ammonia ice and form towers 50 km (30 miles) wide and 50 km high.

 

   Jupiter consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.  Under equilibrium conditions - allowing all the elements present at an average temperature to react with each other for the visible part of the Jovian atmosphere - to combine with hydrogen of abundant chemically active elements  Is expected.  Thus it was estimated that methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen sulfide would be present.  With the exception of hydrogen sulfide, all of these compounds have been found through spectroscopic observations from the ground.  The apparent absence of hydrogen sulfide can be understood if it combines with ammonia to form postulate ammonium hydro sulfide clouds.  In fact, hydrogen sulfide was detected in the atmosphere by the Galileo probe.  The absence of identifiable hydrogen sulfide on the clouds, however, suggests that the chemistry that produces colored sulfur compounds (if any) is driven by local electrical emissions rather than ultraviolet radiation from the sun.  In fact, the reasons for the colors on Jupiter are indeterminate, although investigators have developed a number of viable hypotheses.

   Jupiter: Cloud waves.

   Cloud waves on Jupiter as seen by the Juno spacecraft, May 19, 2017.

  

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   Sulfur compounds have also been suggested to describe the dark brown color of ammonia clouds that are still found at lower levels, where the measured temperature is 260 K (8 ° F, −13 ° C).  These clouds are seen through objects that seem to have holes in the mound clouds everywhere.  They appear bright in Jupiter's images, which are made up of its thermal radiation, which is found at a wavelength of five micrometers according to their high temperature.

   The color of the Great Red Spot is attributed to the presence of complex organic molecules, red phosphorus, or any other sulfur compound.  Laboratory experiments support these views, but in each case there are counter-arguments.  Dark regions are found near the tops of white plum clouds near the planet's equator, where temperatures have been measured up to 300 K (80 ° F, 27 ° C).  Despite their bluish-gray appearance, these so-called hot spots have a reddish hue.  They appear to be cloud-free areas - hence their ability to "see" at great depths and measure high temperatures - which exhibit a bluish (reddish scattering of sunlight) reddish material.  Is covered with a thin haze.  That these so-called hot spots occur only near the equator, elliptical dark brown clouds are only about 18 ° N in latitude, and the most prominent red color on the planet appears only in the great red spots that  There is a localization of chemistry that is amazing.  Dynamically dynamic environment.

   Still at lower depths in the atmosphere, astronomers expect to find clouds of water ice and water droplets, both of which contain dilute solutions of ammonium hydroxide.  Nevertheless, when the Galileo spacecraft probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7, 1995, it failed to locate these water clouds, although it survived to a pressure level of 22 bar, which is the sea level on Earth.  Was about 22 times the surface pressure.  The temperature was over 400 K (260 ° F, 130 ° C).  In fact, the investigation did not even detect the upper cloud layers of ammonia and ammonium hydro sulfide.  Unfortunately for the study of Juvenile Cloud Physics, the probe entered the atmosphere in a hot spot where the clouds were missing, probably due to a large-scale meteorological phenomenon related to the down-draft observed in some storms on Earth.  Had happened

   Characteristics of the environment

   Ingredients ratio

   Prior to the deployment of the Galileo probe, astronomers relied on planetary spectrum studies to provide information on the structure, temperature and pressure of the atmosphere.  In a specific version of this technique, called absorption spectroscopy, light or thermal radiation wavelengths from the planet (in colors, in visible light, such as in a rainbow) are transmitted by a scattering element in a spectrograph.  The resulting spectrum consists of discrete intervals, or lines, on which energy is absorbed by the components of the planet's atmosphere.  By measuring the exact wavelength at which it is absorbed and comparing the results with the spectra of gases obtained in the laboratory, astronomers can identify the gases in Jupiter's atmosphere.

   The presence of methane and ammonia in Jupiter's atmosphere was first estimated in 1930, while hydrogen was first discovered in 1960.  Weakened with electromagnetic waves.) Subsequent studies added to the list of new components, including the discovery of the arsenic compound arsenic in 1990.  Observations of environmental research

   Abundance of space for Jupiter

   Gas Percentage Measurement (relative to hydrogen) Jupiter / Sun ratio

   Types of balance

   Hydrogen (H2) 86.4

   Helium 13.56 Helium-4 0.81

   Water (H2O)> 0.026 Oxygen> 0.82

   Methane (CH4) 0.21 Carbon 2.9 ± 0.5

   Ammonia (NH3) 0.07 Nitrogen 3.6 ± 0.5

   Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) 0.007 Sulfur 2.5 ± 0.2

   Hydrogen Deuteroid (HD) 0.004 Deuterium No Deuterium on the Sun

   neon (Ne) 0.002 neon-20 0.10 ± 0.01

   argon (Ar) 0.002 argon-36 2.5 ± 0.5

   Krypton (Kr) 6 × 10−8 krypton-84 2.7 ± 0.5

   xenon (Xe) 6 × 10−9 xenon-132 2.6 ± 0.5

   Unbalanced species

   Phosphine (PH3) 5 × 10−5 Phosphorus 0.8

   Germin (GeH4) 6 × 10−8 Germinium 0.05

   Arsenic (AsH3) 2 × 10−8 Arsenic 0.5

   Carbon monoxide (CO) 1 × 10−7

   Carbon dioxide (CO2) was found in the stratosphere.

   Ethane (C2H6) 1–4 × 10−4 (stratosphere)

   acetylene (C2H2) 3–9 × 10−6 (stratosphere)

   Ethylene (C2H4) 6 × 10−7 (North Pole)

   Benzene (C6H6) 2 × 10−7 (North Pole)

   Propane (C3H4) 2 × 10−7 (North Pole)

   The number of species discovered has not yet been determined.

   Methyl Radical (CH3) (Polar Regions)

   Propane (C3H8)

   diacetylene (C4H2) (polar region)

   If the chemical balance in Jupiter's atmosphere is strictly maintained, one would not expect to find molecules such as carbon monoxide or phosphine in measured abundance.  Nor would one expect traces of acetylene, ethane, and other hydrocarbons found in the stratosphere.  Obviously, there are sources of energy other than molecular kinetic energy according to local temperature.  Solar ultraviolet radiation is responsible for the breakdown of methane, and the subsequent reaction with its fragments produces acetylene and ethane.  In the region of atmospheric motion, lightning (observed by Voyager and Galileo spacecraft) contributes to these processes.  Even deeper, at a temperature of 1,200 K (1,700 ° F, 930 ° C), carbon monoxide is formed by a reaction between methane and water vapor.  The vertical mix must be strong enough to carry the gas to a region where it can be discovered from outer space.  Some carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water come into the atmosphere from icy particles that bombard the planet from space.

   Galileo's research involved a mass spectrometer that first detected atoms and molecules in the atmosphere by first charging them and then expanding them according to their magnetic field.  The advantage of this technique was that it could measure great gases like helium and neon that do not interact with visible and infrared light.  As the probe landed in the air on its parachute, its spectrometer also studied variations in height and frequency.  The experiment eventually detected the previously missing hydrogen sulfide, which was found in the atmosphere less than expected.  Apparently, this cloud-forming gas, like ammonia and water vapor, was eliminated by the above-mentioned down-draft in the upper part of the hot spot.  It was not possible to measure oxygen, as this element is trapped in the water, and the probe did not sink deep enough into a hot spot to reach the region of the atmosphere where these condensable vapors are well mixed.

   The elemental abundance in Jupiter's atmosphere can be compared to the structure of the Sun (see the two columns to the right of the table).  If, like the Sun, the planet is formed by a simple thickening of the early solar nebula, which is thought to have given birth to the solar system, then their basic multiplicity must be the same.  One of the surprising results of Galileo's research was that all the globally mixed elements that he could measure in the Jovian atmosphere showed almost three times the enrichment of their values ​​in the sun compared to hydrogen.  It has important implications for the formation of the planet (see below the Origin of the Jovian system).  Ground spectroscopy shows a large spread of values ​​of other elements (phosphorus, germanium, and arsenic) that are not measured by research.  The abundance of gases that make up this elemental abundance depends on the dynamic phenomena in Jupiter's atmosphere - mainly chemical reactions and vertical mixing.  The importance of helium and neon deficiency is discussed in the following section.

   Another difference with solar values ​​is the presence of deuterium on Jupiter.  This heavy isotope of hydrogen has disappeared from the sun as a result of a nuclear reaction in the solar interior.  Since Jupiter has no such reaction, the ratio of deuterium and hydrogen there must be equal to the ratio of these isotopes in the interstellar gas and dust clouds that formed 4.6 billion years ago to form the solar system.  Since deuterium was formed in the Big Bang, which is said to have begun the expansion of the universe, more accurate measurement of the deuterium / hydrogen ratio on Jupiter will allow calibration of the expansion models.

Saturn Planet

 Astronomy

    Saturn

    Planet

    Who was the first to observe Saturn through a telescope?

    How far is Saturn from Earth?

    What feature is Saturn known for?

    Which is the largest moon of Saturn?

    Is Saturn's light enough to float?

    Saturn, the second largest planet in the solar system's mass and volume, and the sixth closest planet to the Sun.  Saturn in the night sky is easily visible to the naked eye as a flickering point without light.  Even when viewed through a small telescope, the planet surrounded by its magnificent circles is the most spectacular thing in the solar system.

    Saturn

    Saturn and its magnificent rings, in a natural color mix of 126 images taken by the Cassini spacecraft on October 6, 2004.  This view points to the southern hemisphere of Saturn, pointing to the sun.  The shadows cast by the circles appear against the blue northern hemisphere, while the shadow of the planet is presented on the circles to the left.

  

    Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture, who is the father of the Greek god Cronus, one of the Titans, and Zeus (the Roman god Jupiter).  Saturn is also considered to be the slowest moving planet by ancient observers.  At a distance of 9.5 times from the Sun, Saturn takes about 29.5 Earth years to make a solar revolution.  In 1610, the Italian astronomer Galileo first observed Saturn through a telescope.  Although he saw the strange appearance of Saturn's appearance, the low resolution of his instrument did not allow him to understand the true nature of the planet's orbits.

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    Saturn occupies about 60% of Jupiter's volume but only one third of its mass and about 70% of the water of any known object in the solar system.  Hypothetically, Saturn floats in a sea so large that it can catch it.  Saturn and Jupiter both resemble stars because of their large chemical structure dominated by hydrogen.  Also, as in the case of Jupiter, the intense pressure in Saturn's deep interior keeps hydrogen there in a liquid metal state.  However, Saturn's structure and evolutionary history are significantly different from those of its larger counterpart.  Like other giant, or Jupiter, planets - Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune - Saturn has a vast system of moons (natural satellites) and orbits, which can provide clues about its origin and evolution as well as the solar system.  Are  Saturn's moon Titan is distinguished from all other moons in the solar system by the presence of an important atmosphere, which is denser than any of the terrestrial planets except Venus.

    The greatest advances in Saturn's knowledge, as well as those of other planets, have been made by deep space exploration.  Four spacecraft have visited Saturn's system: Pioneer 11 in 1979, Voyagers 1 and 2 in the following two years, and, almost a quarter of a century later, Cassini Hughes, who arrived in 2004.  The first three missions were short-lived flyovers.  But Cassini went into orbit around Saturn for years to investigate, when his Huawei probe parachuted from Titan's atmosphere to its surface, becoming the first spacecraft to land on a moon other than Earth.

    Basic astronomical data

    Saturn orbits the Sun at an average distance of 1,427,000,000 kilometers (887 million miles).  Its closest distance to Earth is about 1.2 billion kilometers (746 million miles), and its phase angle - the angle it forms with the sun and the earth - never exceeds about 6.  Saturn is seen from around the Earth, so it is always almost completely bright.  Only deep space exploration can provide sideline and backlit views.

    Like Jupiter and most other planets, Saturn also has a regular orbit - that is, its motion around the sun is progressive (the direction in which the sun revolves) and a small eccentricity (non-circle) and a lunar eclipse.  Tilt.  Earth orbit plane.  Unlike Jupiter, however, Saturn's axis of rotation is quite tilted - 26.7 ° - towards its orbital plane.  Tilt gives Saturn's season, as it does on Earth, but each season lasts more than seven years.  Another consequence is that Saturn's rings, located along the length of its equator, are presented to observers on Earth at angles ranging from 0 ° (at the edge) to about 30.  A view of Saturn's orbits over a period of 30 years.  Earth-based observers can see the northern part of the circle's sunlight for about 15 years, and then in a similar view, the southern part of the sunlight for the next 15 years.  At short intervals, when the earth crosses the plane of the ring, the circles are all hidden.

    Determining the duration of Saturn's rotation was very difficult.  In its upper upper atmosphere, cloud movements detect different periods, which are shorter for about 10 hours and 10 minutes near the equator and increase to about 30 minutes with some ambiguity at latitudes over 40.  ۔  Scientists have tried to determine the period of rotation of Saturn's deep inner part from its magnetic field, which has its roots in the planet's metallic hydrogen outer core.  However, direct measurement of field rotation was difficult because the field is highly aligned around the rotation axis.  At Voyager's competition, the radio bursts from Saturn, apparently related to minor irregularities in the magnetic field, showed a duration of 10 hours 39.4 minutes.  This value was taken as the period of rotation of the magnetic field.  Measurements made 25 years later by the Cassini spacecraft indicate that the field has been spinning for 6-7 minutes longer.  Solar wind was thought to be responsible for some of the differences between these two measurements of the period of rotation.  Not until Cassini flew inside Saturn's orbits in its final orbit was the period of rotation accurately measured.  By combining the waves seen in the circles of Saturn's gravitational field with slight variations, the period of rotation of the planet was fixed at 10 hours 33 minutes 38 seconds.  The time difference between the rotation periods of Saturn's clouds and its interior is used to estimate wind speeds (see space below).

    Since the outer layers of the four major planets have no solid surface, the values ​​of radius and gravity of these planets are calculated according to the convention at the level at which atmospheric pressure is applied.  By this measure, Saturn's equatorial diameter is 120,536 kilometers (74,898 miles).  In comparison, its polar diameter is only 108,728 kilometers (67,560 miles) or 10% smaller, which makes Saturn the thickest (flattened at the poles) of all the planets in the solar system.  Its thick shape can also be seen in small binoculars.  Although Saturn rotates slightly slower than Jupiter, it is thicker because its rotational speed cancels out a large portion of the planet's gravity at the equator.  The planet's tropical gravity, 896 centimeters (29.4 feet) per second, is only 74% of its polar gravity.  Saturn is 95 times larger than Earth but 766 times larger.  Its average density is 0.69 grams per cubic centimeter, thus only 12% of the earth.  Saturn's escape from the equator - the speed required for an object, which includes individual atoms and molecules, to avoid the planet's gravity on the equator, without further acceleration - about 36 kilometers per second.  (80,000 miles per hour).  -Bar level, compared to 11.2 kilometers per second (25,000 miles per hour) for Earth.  This high value indicates that there has been no significant damage to the environment since the formation of Saturn.  For additional orbital and physical data, see Table.

    Planetary data for Saturn

    * The planet needs more time to return to the same position in the sky than the sun, as seen from Earth.

    ** Calculated for the height at which atmospheric pressure is applied 1 time.

    Average distance from the sun 1,426,666,000 km (9.5 AU)

    The eccentricity of the orbit is 0.054

    The tilt of the orbit is 2.49 کی towards the lunar eclipse

    Year of Saturn (side period of revolution) 29.45 Earth year

    Visual Intensity Average Opposition at 0.7

    Meaning synodic period * 378.10 Earth days

    The average orbital speed is 9.6 kilometers per second

    Equatorial radius ** 60,268 km

    Polar radius ** 54,364 km

    Mass 5.683 × 1026 kg

    Average density 0.69 g / cm3

    Equatorial gravity ** 896 cm / sec 2

    Polar Gravity ** 1,214 cm / sec 2

    Equatorial escape speed ** 35.5 km / s

    Polar escape speed ** 37.4 km / s

    Rotation duration (magnetic field) 10 hours 39 minutes 24 seconds (Voyager round);  Approximately 10 hours 46 minutes (Cassini-Huygens mission)

    Tilt the equator toward 26.7

    The magnetic field strength at the equator is 0.21 gas

    Number of known moons 62

    Planetary ring system 3 large circles consisting of thousands of component circles.  Many less dense circles

    Saturn's atmosphere

    Structure and structure

    Seen from Earth, Saturn's shape is generally pale yellow-brown.  The surface seen through binoculars and in spacecraft images is actually a complex of cloud layers decorated with many small scale features, such as red, brown and white spots, bands, eddy, and whirlpools.  , Which vary in a very short time.  .  Thus Saturn resembles a blender and less active Jupiter.  A notable exception occurred during September-November 1990, when a large, light-colored hurricane system appeared near the equator, measuring more than 20,000 kilometers (12,400 miles), and before it finally faded.  Spread around the equator.  Storms similar to this "Great White Spot" (named after Jupiter's Great Red Spot) have been observed at intervals of about 30 years since the late 19th century.  This is close to Saturn's orbital period of 29.4 years, which shows that these storms are seasonal phenomena.

    Saturn

    Saturn is showing an Earth-sized storm (light-colored patch) in its northern equator, in a comprehensive image taken from observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope on December 1, 1994, two months after the storm was discovered.  Larger storms are relatively rare on Saturn, whose atmosphere is less active than Jupiter's.

  

    Saturn's atmosphere consists mostly of molecular hydrogen and helium.  The exact relative abundance of the two molecules is not well known, since helium must be measured indirectly.  Currently, the best estimate is that 18 to 25 percent of the Earth's atmosphere is massive helium.  The rest is molecular hydrogen and about 2% other molecules.  The amount of helium in hydrogen is lower than in the structure of the sun.  If hydrogen, helium, and other elements were present in the same proportions as the Sun's atmosphere, Saturn's atmosphere would be about 71% hydrogen and 28% helium massive.  According to some theories, helium may have come out of Saturn's outer layers.

    The other major molecules observed in Saturn's atmosphere are methane and ammonia, which are two to seven times more abundant than hydrogen in the Sun.  Hydrogen sulfide and water are also suspected to be present in the deep atmosphere but it is not yet known.  Common molecules that have been found spectroscopically from Earth include phosphine, carbon monoxide and germin.  Such molecules would not be in chemically balanced quantities in a hydrogen-rich environment.  In Saturn's deep atmosphere, under observable clouds, they may produce a reaction to high pressures and temperatures, which are transported to visible ecological regions by stimulus.  Several other unbalanced hydrocarbons are found in Saturn's stratosphere: acetylene, ethane, and possibly propane and methyl acetylene.  All of the latter can be generated by solar ultraviolet radiation through photochemical effects (see photochemical reaction) or at high latitudes, by the energetic electrons emitted from Saturn's radiation belt (see magnetic field and magnetic field below).  ۔  (A similar molecular structure is observed in Jupiter's atmosphere, for which a similar chemical process is estimated; see Jupiter: Proportion of components.)

    On Earth, astronomers have analyzed the turbulence of starlight and radio waves from a spacecraft passing through Saturn's atmosphere to determine the atmospheric temperature at depths equal to 1.3 times the pressure of one millionth of a bar.  I can get information.  At pressures less than 1 millibar, the temperature is almost constant at about 140 to 150 K (K − 8208 −190 ° F, −133 to −123 ° C).  A stratosphere, where the temperature drops continuously with increasing pressure, expands downwards by 1 to 60 millibars, at which point the coldest temperature in Saturn's atmosphere is 82 K (12312 ° F, −191).  C) is reached.  At high pressures (deep surfaces) the temperature rises again.  This region resembles the troposphere, the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, in which an increase in temperature with pressure follows the thermodynamic relationship of gas compression without gain or loss of heat.  The temperature is 135 K (17217 ° F, −138 ° C) at 1 bar pressure, and it continues to rise at high pressure.

    Saturn's visible cloud layer is made up of molecules of tiny compounds that condense in a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.  Although particles formed by photochemical reactions are observed to be suspended in the atmosphere at a high pressure level of 20-70 mm Hg, significant clouds start from the surface where the pressure exceeds 400 mm Hg.  Solid ammonia is thought to form the highest cloud deck.  The base of the crystal ammonia cloud deck is predicted to be located at a depth equal to about 1.7 bars, where ammonia crystals dissolve in hydrogen gas and suddenly disappear.  Almost all information about the deeper layers of clouds has been obtained indirectly by constructing chemical models of the behavior of the compounds that are expected to be present in the gas of the nearby solar compound after the temperature-pressure profile of Saturn's atmosphere.  Successive deep cloud layers are based on 4.7 bar (ammonium hydro sulfide crystal) and 10.9 bar (water ice crystals with water ammonia droplets).  Although all of the clouds mentioned above will be colorless in the pure state, the original clouds of Saturn show different colors of yellow, brown and red.  These colors are apparently caused by chemical impurities, perhaps as photochemical products fall on the clouds from above.  Phosphorus-containing molecular candidates are also colored.

    Saturn's large axial tilt results in darker shadows over the winter hemisphere, further dimming the faint winter sunlight.  Cassini images of sunlight bushes in the Northern Hemisphere during the winter revealed a surprisingly clear blue atmosphere, probably the result of a comparative reduction in photochemical haze production in the shadow of circles.

    Even at extremely high depth pressures in Saturn's atmosphere, the minimum ambient temperature of 82 K is so high that molecular hydrogen as a gas and a liquid cannot be in equilibrium at the same time.  Thus, there is no specific boundary between the shallow, visible atmosphere, where hydrogen behaves primarily as a gas, and between the deep atmosphere, where it resembles a liquid.  Unlike the Earth's case, Saturn's troposphere does not end at a solid surface but extends tens of thousands of kilometers under seemingly visible clouds, becoming permanently denser and warmer, eventually reaching a temperature of thousands of Kelvin.  Goes and the pressure is more than a million times.

    Dynamics

    Like other major planets, Saturn has an atmosphere dominated by zonal (east-west) flow.  It appears to be a pattern of Jupiter-like light and deep cloud bands, although Saturn's bands are more subtle in color and wider near the equator.  There is so little contradiction in the features of cloud tops that they are best studied by spacecraft.

    Since Saturn has no surface, its winds must be measured against any other frame of reference.  Like Jupiter, winds are measured by the rotation of Saturn's magnetic field.  In this frame, virtually all of Saturn's atmospheric currents are eastward - in the direction of rotation.  At latitudes below 20 the equator represents a particularly active eastward flow with a maximum speed of approximately 470 meters per second (1,700 kilometers [1,050 miles] per hour) but at such intervals.  Also when the speed is 200 meters per second (700 kilometers [450] miles] per hour) slowly.  This feature is similar to the one on Jupiter but is twice as wide in latitude and moves four times faster.  In contrast, most winds on Earth operate in tropical storms, where in extreme cases the constant speed can exceed 67 meters per second (240 kilometers [150 miles] per hour).

    Saturn's currents are remarkably consistent with Saturn's equator.  That is, each of the given north latitudes usually has a counterpart at the same southern latitude.  Strong eastward currents - with speeds greater than 100 meters per second (360 kilometers [225 miles] per hour) relative to the east - are observed at 46 ° N and S and approximately 60 ° N and S.  Flows to the west, which are seen approximately at stationary, 40 °, 55 °, and 70 ° N and S in the frame of reference of the magnetic field.  After Voyager's competitions, improvements to Earth-based instruments allowed Saturn's clouds to be observed at a distance.  Formed over several years, they agreed with detailed Voyager observations of zonal flows and thus confirmed their stability over time.  How to maintain the flow of jets in the presence of environmental friction is not known.

    Severe hurricane-like cyclones are found within about 11 کے of Saturn's north and south poles.  At the South Pole, the whirlpool's hot eye has a diameter of 2,000 km (1,200 miles) and is surrounded by clouds 50 to 70 kilometers (30 to 40 miles) high above the polar clouds.  In the southern hemisphere, the main eyes of tropical storms are also warm, flowing clockwise and ringing from high clouds, but all this on a very small scale.  Unlike hurricanes on Earth, there is no ocean below Saturn's whirlpool.  The first jet south of North Whirlpool at 75 ° N follows a hexagonal pattern around the planet.  Cloud features rotate around the hexagon at a speed of about 100 meters per second (360 kilometers [220 miles] per hour).  Similar angular patterns have been observed in buckets of rotating fluids and may have been generated by talking waves.  Why the hexagonal wave is stable and how it formed in Saturn's atmosphere at this particular latitude is not yet understood.

    A full variety of small-scale features have also been observed in the atmosphere.  Particularly surprising are the approximately two dozen similar sizes (1,500 km [930 mi] in diameter) of cloud clearing at approximately equal distances from 33.5 ° N to 100 ° longitude.  In the infrared images of Saturn's thermal emissions, these clearing beads appear as a bright string.  "Spread over the entire planet. In the Southern Hemisphere, the emission of shortwave radio from celestial storms, which are hundreds of times more severe than storms on Earth and last for weeks to months, is often measured at 35 ° S.  Thunderbolt centers are associated with the characteristics of thick light-colored clouds. Strong stimulus driven by water vapor is generated. Cloud clearing in the north and lightning storms in the south are both intense.  Speed ​​is the zone of westerly winds, which travels against most other zonal currents moving on the planet.

    The general north-south harmony suggests that zonal flows may be connected in some way to the inner depths.  Theoretical modeling of deep-moving fluid planets such as Saturn indicates that there is a differential rotation with cylinders connected to the planet's average rotation axis (see figure).  Thus Saturn's atmosphere can be made up of a series of coaxial cylinders connected north-south, each rotating at a unique speed, giving rise to visible zonal jets on the surface.  These cylindrical layers do not begin to orbit together at a depth of about 9,000 km (5,600 miles), which is much deeper than the point of rotation of Jupiter.

    Magnetic field and magnetic field

    Saturn's magnetic field resembles a simple dopole, or bar magnet, its north-south axis is connected to the center of the magnetic dopole in the center of the planet within 1 کے of Saturn's rotating axis.  The polarity of the field, like that of Jupiter, is the opposite of the current field of the Earth - that is, the field lines emerge in the northern hemisphere of Saturn and re-enter the planet in the southern hemisphere (see Earth: geomagnetic field and magnetic sphere).  A normal magnetic compass on Saturn will point south.  Saturn's field deviates from a simple dupole field with measurements.  It manifests itself in a north-south equilibrium and in a slightly higher polar field than the pure dupole model predicted.  At Saturn's once "surface" level, the maximum polar field is 0.8 gas (north) and 0.7 gas (south), which is very similar to the Earth's polar surface field, while the equatorial field is at the Earth's surface.  0.2 gas compared to 0.3 gas.  .  Jupiter's equatorial field, at 4.3 degrees, is 20 times stronger than Saturn's.  If one represents Saturn's magnetic field, such as a simple current loop with a specific magnetic moment (see magnetic dopole), then that magnetic moment is about 600 times that of Earth, whereas Jupiter's magnetic moment is about Earth.  20,000 times more than

    Saturn's magnetic field is created by fluid movements in the electrically moving part of the planet's interior.  This region, in which hydrogen is present in a liquid metal state around a central rock center, consists of the inner half of the planet.  Compared to Jupiter, Saturn has a smaller mass and volume than this rotating metal fluid, which may explain in part why Saturn's magnetic field is weaker.  Jupiter's interior is also warmer, so fluid movements in its interior may be more intense, possibly increasing the difference in field forces.

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    Saturn's magnetic sphere is a teardrop-shaped region of space around the planet where the behavior of charged particles, mostly coming from the sun, dominates the planet's magnetic field rather than the interplanetary magnetic field.  The teardrop's round direction extends toward the sun, forming a boundary or magnetopos, in which the solar wind travels at a distance of about 20 Saturn's radius (1,200,000 km [750,000 miles]) from the center of the planet, but with considerable  Solar wind pressure due to fluctuations.  In the opposite direction to Saturn, a magnetic sphere is drawn into a very large magnetic tail that stretches a great distance.

    Saturn's inner magnetic sphere, like Earth and Jupiter's magnetic fields, travels in spiral paths along magnetic field lines, trapping highly stable charged particles, mostly a stable population of protons.  These particles form a belt around Saturn, similar to the Earth's Allen belt.  Unlike the case of Earth and Jupiter, Saturn's charged particle population is largely eliminated by the absorption on the surfaces of solid objects that rotate within field lines.  Voyager's data show that there are "holes" in the particle population on the plains that connect the circles and orbits of the moon within the magnetic sphere.

    Saturn's moons Titan and Hyperion revolve in orbit at a distance close to the minimum magnitude of the magnetic sphere, and they occasionally cross magnetopes and travel beyond Saturn's magnetic sphere.  Energy-charged charged particles trapped in Saturn's outer magnetic sphere collide with neutral atoms in Titan's upper atmosphere and energize them, causing a cut in the atmosphere.  Cassini orbit saw the halo of such energetic atoms.

    Saturn has ultraviolet auroras which are produced by the effect of energetic particles on the atomic and molecular hydrogen from the magnetic sphere in Saturn's polar atmosphere.  Ultraviolet images of Saturn, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope orbiting the Earth in the late 1990s and early 21st century, captured the orbital circles around the poles.  It clearly demonstrates the superior harmony of Saturn's magnetic field and reveals the details of how Aurora reacts to the solar wind and the sun's magnetic field.

Uranus Planet

 Astronomy

         Uranus

         Planet

 

         How long did Uranus last?

         Is Uranus a dreamy distance from the sun?

         What is the average temperature in the atmosphere of Uranus?

         How many moons and rings does Uranus have?

         What is so unusual about the axis of Uranus?

         Uranus, the seventh planet at a distance from the Sun and the four giants of the solar system, or Jupiter, the largest of the planets, including Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune.  At its brightest level, Uranus appears as a blue-green dot of light without assistance.

         Two views of the southern hemisphere of Uranus, created from images obtained by Voyager 2 on January 17, 1986.  In the colors of the human eye without any help, Uranus is a light, almost non-existent sphere (left).  Uranus shows a shared band-cloud structure for four large planets (right), in a color-changing scene for low-contrast front-to-front processing.  At this point, from Voyager's polar point of view, the bands are centered around the planet's orbital axis, which is almost pointing towards the sun.  The small features of the ring shape in the picture on the right are the patterns created by the dust in the spacecraft.

         Jet Propulsion Laboratory / National Aeronautics and Space Administration

         Uranus is named in Greek mythology for the figure of the sky and the child and husband of Gaia.  It was found by a bean in 1781. It was the first planetary epoch. It was not recognized in the prehistoric period.  Uranus was seen by many barbinians in the last century, but was rejected as another star.  Its average distance from the sun is about 2.9 billion kilometers (1.8 billion miles), which is 19 times longer than the earth, and it never gets closer to 2.7 billion kilometers (1.7 billion miles) from the earth.  Its relatively low density (only 1.3 times that of water) and its large size (four times the radius of the Earth) make it a high cement that, like other large crusts, Uranus is mainly composed of hydrogen, helium, water,  And other non-authentic compounds.  Like its brethren, Uranus has no solid surface.  In the uranium atmosphere, methane absorbs red wavelengths of sunlight, giving North Korea its blue-green color.

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         Planetary data for Uranus

         * It takes time for the planet to return to the same position in the solar system as seen from Earth.

         ** Used for heights for which results count 1 time.

         Average distance from the sun 2,870,658,000 km (19.2 AU)

         The eccentricity of the orbit is 0.0472

         The tilt of the orbit is 0.77 طرف towards the lunar eclipse

         Uranium year (by revolution) 84.02 Earth years

         Visual Speed ​​Average Update to 5.5

         Meaning synodic period * 369.6 Earth days

         Meaning orbital speed 6.80 km per second

         Equatorial radius ** 25,559 km

         Polar radius ** 24,973 km

         Mass 8.681 × 1025 kg

         Average density 1.27 g / cm3

         Gravity ** 887 cm / sec 2

         Escape speed ** 21.3 km / s

         Duration of rotation (magnetic field) 17 hours 14 minutes (retreat)

         Tilt the equator to 97.8

         The power of the logical field at the equator is 0.23 gauss

         The angle of inclination of the axis is 58.6

         The power axis of the radius of Uranus offset 0.31

         Number of known moons 27

         Planetary ring system 13 known circles

         Hubble Space Telescope: Uranus

         Hubble Space Telescope, Uranus image taken after 1998.  Showing its four large circles and its 10 satellites.

         Erich Karkoska, University of Arizona and NASA

         Most planets revolve around an axis that is more or less straight in the orbit of the orbit around the sun.  But the axis of Uranus is almost parallel to that of the orbital plane, which means that as the planet rotates, its poles turn towards the sun as it travels in its orbit.  In addition, the axis of the planet's logical field is significantly tipped over the axis of rotation and offset from the center of the planet.  Uranus has more than two dozen moons (natural planets), five of which are relatively large, and a system of narrow circles.

         Uranus has only sailed once - 1986 US Voyager 2 probe.  Before that, astronomers knew very little about it.  .  Different values ​​are generated to increase the rotation period of the planets on Earth from 24 to 13 hours to try to use the feature primarily, while Voyager 2 has a rotation period of 17.24 hours for the Uranium inner size.  Told  Establishment After the Voyager collision, advances in ground-based observation technology increased knowledge of the uranium system.

  

         From the sun to the atmosphere of Uranus, the planet completes one orbit for 84 Earth years, basically during the entire human life.  The eccentricity of its orbit is low - that is, its orbit deviates very far from a perfect circle - and the tilt of the orbit is a lunar eclipse - the plane of the Earth's orbit and the approximate plane of the solar system - less than 1.  ° Low orbital eccentricity and inclination of the solar system's planets, with Mercury and Pluto notable.  Scientists believe that collisions and gaseous drag removed energy from orbits when the planets were forming, thus reducing their eccentricity and inclination toward existing values.  Thus, about 4.6 billion years ago, immediately after the Sun's birth, Uranus formed with other planets (see Solar System: Origin of the Solar System).

         Uranus and its neighbor Neptune, the next extraterrestrial planet, are almost twin in size.  Once there is a boundary of space (equal to Earth's sea level), the equatorial radius of Uranus is 25,559 km (15,882 miles).  Is.  The difference in their bulk density - 1.285 and 1.64 grams per cubic centimeter, respectively - shows the basic difference in structure and internal structure.  Although Uranus and Neptune are significantly larger than the terrestrial planets, their pulses are less than half that of the largest planets and Saturn.  For additional orbital and physical data about Uranus, see Table.

         For this one pole is above the lunar eclipse and the other below it.  (The terms above and below refer to the sides of the eclipse that occur above the Earth's North and South Poles, respectively, regardless of the direction in which the planet is orbiting. By this definition, Uranus is at its North Pole.  In the direction of rotation, or retreat, which is the opposite of the progressive spin of most of the Earth and other planets. When Voyager 2 flew from Uranus in 1986, the North Pole was in darkness, and the Sun was almost  Right at the South Pole. 42 In North Korea, or in a year and a half a year, the sun will move almost to the top of the pole.  One evening after the event you collided with Uranus, which crashed into your country. An alternative theory is that it was a Mars-sized moon, orbiting Uranus in the opposite direction to the planet's danger, eventually colliding with the planet.  Went and dropped it on his country.

         The orbital period of Uranus was 17.24 hours when Wake 2 detected the emission of waves starting from charged particles trapped in the logical field of the planet.  A straight path later in the field shows that it is tilted at an angle of 58.6 شدت to the intensity of the axis of rotation and turns with the same duration of 17.24 hours.  These fields are thought to be the planet's electrically ascendant, for which a period of 17.24 hours is assumed to be an internal size.  Relatively fast rotation causes the poles of the planet to become thicker, or flatter, as the polar radius is about 2.3% less than the equator radius.  Clouds revolve around the planet on the visible surface as it moves through the atmosphere, during which time it can be anywhere from 18 hours near the equator to more than 14 hours at high altitudes.

         Space

         Molecular hydrogen and atom helium are two important components of the uranium atmosphere.  Hydrogen can be detected from the earth in the spectrum of sunlight scattered from the planet's clouds.  The balance of helium-hydrogen and the disturbance of the radio signal (Mo) of Voyager 2 in the atmosphere was determined as it passed behind spacecraft C.  Helium contains 15% of the total number of hydrogen molecules and helium atoms, which is equivalent to 26% of the total number of hydrogen and helium.  These values ​​are higher than the values ​​estimated for the Sun and higher than the values ​​estimated for Jupiter and Saturn.  It is assumed that the four major planets had a hydrogen-helium relationship like the Sun during their formation, but in the case of the joint and Saturn, some helium settles towards its center (see joint: ؛ Saturn:  ).  The processes that lead to this settlement in theoretical studies do not work on large planets such as Uranus and Neptune.

         Man is strongly attracted to near and long wavelengths and is exposed to the light of the reflected spectrum as the number of molecules is only 2.3%.  Astronomers have estimated that the abundance of methane uses Voyager 2 radio signals that examine the depths of the atmosphere where the hydrogen connection with methane is part of a permanent routine.  If this consistency is characteristic of the planet as a whole, then Uranus' carbon-hydrogen ratio is 24 times that of the Sun.  (Methane [CH4]] contains one atom of carbon and four hydrogen atoms.  As can be seen below. Director Observations on Earth A strange decrease in ammonia molecules appears in the atmosphere, probably due to the high concentration of hydrogen sulfide and all ammonia together to form cloud particles of ammonium hydro sulfide.  Ultraviolet spectrometers rarely detect traces of acetylene and ethane, gases of methane, which are separated when the sun's ultraviolet light hits the upper atmosphere.

         On average, Uranus releases an amount of energy at 59.1 K (K ؛ 3 353 ° F, 14214 ° C) as an ideal, absorbing surface.  This radiation temperature is about 0.4 times the equivalent of ambient temperature.  With the compounder the temperature decreases - that is, with increasing altitude - in this observation of the atmosphere this level reaches the level of millibars, where Uranus is about 52 K (−36 ° F, −221 ° C).  Cold temperatures in the atmosphere.  From this point the temperature rises again until it reaches 750 K (890 ° F, 480 C) in the outer sphere - 1.1 Uranus from the center of the planets.  Above - where the point is in order.  One trillionth.  High temperatures remain to be fixed, but may include ultraviolet absorption, electron bombardment, and failure to emit gas at weapon wavelengths.

         Voyager 2 measures the horizontal temperature of the atmosphere in the range of twice the height, measuring 60-200 mm bar and 500-1000 mm bar.  The pole-to-pole difference in both ranges is eliminated - less than 1 K (1.8 ° F, 1 ° C) - due to the fact that one pole faces the sun during the fly-by.  This reduction in global change is thought to be related to the efficient horizontal temperature transfer and greater capacity to store heat in the home.

         Although not particularly significant for comparison to Uranus, the Vail 2 contrasting fine images and recent observations of the Earth show bands of fading clouds parallel to the equator.  This type of zonal flow is common and dominates the rotation of Saturn's atmosphere, whose axis of rotation is slightly tilted from the axis of Uranus, as well as those whose climatic changes in solar light are very different.  Apparently, the rotation of the planet itself controls the distribution patterns of absorbed sunlight, not the pattern itself.  Rotation shows you through your Coriolis force, an effect that causes a rotating object to turn to the right or to the left.  In terms of the pattern being, because, Uranus looks like the tip and version of Jupiter or Saturn.

         Orbiting planets move.  At high altitude over Uranus, this nation-state moves in the direction of the planet's orbit.  The movement of women in the equator is in the opposite direction.  Uranus is like the earth in his experiments.  On Earth, these directions are called East and West, respectively, but the more common terms are development and retreat.  Many times more than the land on Uranus.  The wind blows at 200 meters per second (720 kilometers [450 miles] per hour) at 55 ° S latitude and 110 meters per second (400 kilometers [250 miles] per hour) at the equator.  Neptune's equator also retreats to the equator, but is moving towards the joint and Saturn.  There is no satisfactory theory to explain these statements.

         Jupiter's long stay in Uranus is not as big a spot as the Great Red Dot or the Great Dark spot (Neptune: see the atmosphere) seen on the Voyager 2 video Neptune in 1989.  On Uranus, there were only four small spots around Voyager whose visual contrast was not 2 or 3% higher than in the surrounding environment.  There is no solid surface, so the consensus of hurricanes to the spots is not clear because of them, it seems that Uranus also has the lowest number of hurricanes of any major planet.

         Destination field and field field

         Like the other major planets, Uranus has a dissertation field generated by convection currents in an electrically charged internal structure.  Doppol Field, which is centered on a small but time-lapse field, has a force of 0.23 gas in its equatorial plane on a field of uranium equatorial radius from the center.  The polarity of the field is based on the same direction as the current field of the earth - that is, the counterclockwise of a general article report will point to the rotating pole, which is the north pole for the earth (see: geographic field and cross field  ).  The Doppler axis rotates at an angle of 58.6 سے with a glimpse of the planet's orbital axis, which is too much for Earth 11.5 °) Jupiter (9.6 °) and Saturn (less than 1).  The nearest center is 31% (approximately 8,000 kilometers [5,000 miles]) of Uranus's radius from the center of the planet.  Migration occurs mainly along the axis of rotation towards the North Pole.

         The logical field is not only due to its unusual inclination and offset but also due to its large size in terms of small components.  This "roughness" indicates that it grows at shallow depths within the field C, as small-scale components rapidly disappear from the electrically conductive area.  Thus the common portion of Uranus, electronically closer to Saturn and Earth, is thought to be due to the fact that the internal structure of Uranus is known for its ammonia, which contains more water, methane and more than the average density of C.  Methane must be present.  Water and ammonia are separated into positive and positive ions at relatively low temperatures - which move electrically.  That together, on Saturn and Earth, this field is formed by fluid movements in the convex layers, but the layers on Uranus are not two-sided.

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         On the other hand, the path of the planets which have the field of dissertation, the field of Uranus repels the solar, the stream of charged particles which is very far from the sun.  Planetary segmentation - a large region of space in which charged particles emerge from the required field - surround the planet and view it from below.  Upstairs, the meeting of the Sun, the magnetopias; the airspace between the magnetic sphere and the sun, from the center of the planet to the hotel at 18 Uranine Place (460,000 km [286,000 miles]).

         The particles trapped inside the uranium magnetosphere contain protons and electrons, which indicates that the planet's upper atmosphere is providing most of the material.  There is no evidence of helium, which originated from the sun, or of heavy ions, which could come from the uranium moons.  The largest uranium circulates inside the silver sphere, they make some sense in trapped particles.  As they are connected to the dissertation field lines, so that the moon in the orbit that the particles trapped in the exposure lines compared to the neighboring field lines.

         Partition that is common to Saturn, particles charged from the uranium magnetosphere collide in the upper atmosphere and form auroras.  The high temperatures of the outer sphere of Uranus can hardly be (see atmosphere above).  One of the effects of high temperatures is that the atmosphere is outward, which includes rings and limits their life span by increasing the drag.  It looks like a sack that encloses with a drawstring.

         Inside out

         Although Uranus has a slightly lower density than Jupiter, it has a higher proportion of heavier elements than hydrogen and helium.  The greater mass of Jupiter (from the element of 22) leads to greater gravity and thus compresses itself against Uranus.  This extra compression adds to the bulk density of Jupiter.  If Uranus is equal to the common, it is much less.

         The various rocks (silicate and metals) recommended for Uranus, ice (water, methane, and ammonia), and gases (mainly hydrogen and helium) have different ratios.  At high temperatures and locations within the giant planets, f "actually" in the past "to keep up with the bulk density data and statistics, the chrysanthemum of ice except chit should be about 80% of the total mass.  10% for Jupiter and 2% for the composition of the Sun. All in one liquid planet, in which the gaseous light enters U in a high atmosphere. About five mega bars at the center of the planet.

         Scientists have responded to the response of fugal forces arising from the planet's rotation by obtaining information about them, along with the actual planetary response measured by Voyager 2.  By combining the force of the flattening force at the poles with the speed of rotation, the distribution of density within the dream planet can be estimated.  For two planets of the same mass and bulk density, the mass near the center is less flat than the rotation.  Before the Voyager mission, they had to choose between the three components, hard rock, ice and gas, and the ones that got along well with ice and gas.  Combining the great altitude and relatively cheap rotation for Uranus on the Voyager scale, it appears that ice and gas are well mixed and that a rocky portion is small or non-existent.

         The fact is that those who mix Uranus prefer better observations to information about the formation of the planet.  This process is made up of the center of a rock ice in changing the situation after which gas has been extracted from the solar molecule, it seems to have been incorporated into it, in favor of which, a solid budget is continuously a.  Was imprisoned on a large planet that already had a large amount.  Gas component.

         Unlike the other three major planets, Uranus does not emit much heat.  The total heat output is determined by the measurement and emission of C, while the heat input absorbs this vacuum of sunlight.  ۔  For Uranus, the ratio of the two is between 1.00 and 1.14, which means that it provides more energy to the planet than its internal energy, 14% more energy from the sun.  (For other giant planets, the equivalent relationship is greater than 1.7. For example, the heat flow from the inner part of the earth is only one tenth of the heat of the sun.)

         It is not clear why Uranus produces less heat than other living organisms.  All the planets should be warm, because the energy of gravity has not changed during this time.  Over the age of the solar system, Earth and other small companies have lost most of the heat of their formation.  Due to the massive investment in cool surfaces, however, the giant planets store heat well and deteriorate.  Therefore, the massive heat of its structure must change it, and it must escape today.  A small event (such as some planets experiencing collisions with large objects but others have not formed them and suggested a difference between the resulting giant planets)  One explanation is that Uranus produces extraordinary heat.

         Moon and rings of Uranus

         With 27 known moons of Uranus, each of the countless particles forming at least 10 circles can be considered as one moon in its orbit.  Generally, all are located close to the circle, some small moons orbiting outside the circle, the largest moon is out of orbit, and other smaller moons are farther away in orbit.  The orbits of the outermost group of moons are eccentric (long) and very inclined towards the equator of Uranus.  Other moons and rings are mainly along the equator with coplanar.

         Video of Uranus' hemisphere, orbital system, and Voyager K2 came out with images of eight of the ten tiny moons, which were shown on July 28, 199, in the 90-minute atmosphere of the Hubble Space Telescope.  The movement appears.  The rotation of the moon with the equator of Uranus and the clockwise rotation of the cloud in the planetary atmosphere.

         Erich Karkoska, University of Arizona, Takin, and NASA

         The moon of Uranus

         The five largest moons of Uranus are about 240 to 800 kilometers (150 to 500 miles) in radius.  People were grounded through binoculars, four of them before the 20th president (see observations from the ground below).  The ten smaller moons Voyager 2 highlighted in 1985-86 were estimated to be between about 10 and 80 kilometers (6 and 50 miles) in radius, and they hovered between 49,800 and 86,000 kilometers (31,000 and 53,500 miles).  But they revolve around the planet.  To reach the innermost moon, Cordelia, the outermost circles, Lambda and Epsilon.  The 11th, like the moon, was photographed by Voyager near the orbit of Belanda with a picture of Predata.  All 18 of the above people who participated in the Earth observations in 2003 are progressives from planetary divisions, with less inclination, and less eccentric orbits.

         The moon of Uranus

         Composite image of Uranus with its five large moons, mounted on Voyager 2 at one time.  From the smallest to the largest moon, Ariel, Miranda, Titania, Oberon, and Umbrella are here.

 

         Nine outer moons of about the same size met Earth in 1997 that Voyager observed.  These are irregular planets with extremely elliptical orbits which are inclined at great angles towards the planet's equator.  In the direction of all orbits except one.  Their average distance from the planet is between 4 4 and ڈالر 21 kilometers (2.5 2.5 and ڈالر 13 miles), which is 7-36 times more than the outermost powerful moon, Oberon.  Immediately after the formation of the planet, the irregular moon was caught in orbit around Uranus.  Question: The moon is probably in the orbit of its equator at the same time as the planets.  The characteristics of known Uranium moons are summarized in the table.  The names and orbital and physical characteristics are listed separately for the mass and the 10 smaller moons that Voyager actually saw the moon.

         The moon of Uranus

         The name means distance from the center of Uranus (radius of volume 3 km) Orbital distance (cedril period; day of the earth) * Tilt of the orbit of the planet's equator (degrees)  ** Radius (km) Mass (1020 kg) Average density (g / cm3)

         * Following the amount of R does not lead to a receding orbit.

         ** Values ​​of tilt in parentheses related to lunar eclipse.

         *** Scene rotation and orbital periods such as.

         Cordelia 49,800 0.335 0.085 0.0003 20

         Ophelia 53,800 0.376 0.104 0.0099 21

         Statement 59,200 0.435 0.193 0.0009 26

         Cressida 61,800 0.464 0.006 0.0004 40

         Desdemona 62,700 0.474 0.113 0.0001 32

         Juliet 64,400 0.493 0.065 0.0007 47

         $ 66,100 0.513 0.059 0.0001 68

         Rosalind 69,900 0.558 0.279 0.0001 36

         Cupid 74,392 0.613 0.099 0.0013 5

         Belanda 75,300 0.624 0.031 0.0001 40

         Perdita 76,417 0.638 0.47 0.0116 10

         86,000 0.762 0.319 0.0001 81.

         Mab 97,736 0.923 0.134 0.0025 5

         Miranda 129,900 1.413 4.338 0.0013 Scenario 235.7 0.66 1.2

         Ariel 190,900 2.52 0.041 0.0012 Imagine.  578.9 13.5 1.67

         Umbriel 266,000 4.144 0.128 0.0039 sync.  584.7 11.7 1.4

         Titania 436,300 8.706 0.079 0.0011 Concept.  788.9 35.2 1.71

         O'Brien 583,500 13.46 0.068 0.0014 Map.  761.4 30.1 1.63

         Francisco 4,276,000 266.56R (145.22) 0.1459 11

         Caliban 7,231,000 579.73R (140.881) 0.1587 36

         Stephano 8,004,000 677.36R (144.113) 0.2292 16

         Trinculo 8,504,000 749.24R (167.053) 0.22 9

         Sycorax 12,179,000 1288.3R (159.404) 0.5224 75

         Margaret 14,345,000 1687.01 (56.63) 0.6608 10

         Prospero 16,256,000 1978.29R (151.966) 0.4448 25

         Setbus 17,418,000 2225.21R (158.202) 0.5914 24

         Ferdinand 20,901,000 2887.21R (169.84) 0.3682 10

         The density of the four largest Titania, Oberon, Umbrella and Ariel - the equivalent of a reinforced moon - is 1.4–1.7 grams per cubic centimeter.  This limit is higher than the density of a hypothetical object which is to cool the solar compound and remove all gaseous substances and run it.  All that's left is 60 percent ice and 40 percent rock compared to the four Miranda, the fifth largest moon in Uranium, but only half the size of Ariel or Umbrella.  Like Saturn's small moons, Miranda's density (1.2 grams per cubic centimeter) is slightly below the solar system, due to the high ratio of ice to rock.

         Moon of Uranus: Ariel

         Ariel (White Doctor) and his shadow (Black Doctor) cross the middle of Uranus in a widely patterned image from the Hubble Space Telescope.

         Water Snow Show the Spectra of the Surface of the Five Great Moons The surface of the lunar moon is less than that of pure ice, which clearly means that they contain ice water.  The composition of the dark component is not known, but at wavelengths other than water, the surface tectonics appears to be darker, which speaks of a non-free gray color and thus rejects materials such as iron ore.  Which produces a reddish hue, a fraction of carbon, which emanates from under the moons or from the rings of Uranus, emitting methane gas, which is then bombarded by charged particles and solar ultraviolet light to produce solid carbon.  There are flowers for.  ۔

         Titania, the largest moon of Uranus, in a collection of images taken by Voyager 2 when it formed the closest approach to the uranium system on January 24, 1986.  The shape of the upper right side of the lunar disk near the terminator (night range).  The non-selective gray color of Titania represents the planet's five largest moons as a whole.

 

         Two observations show that the surface of large moons is insecure and highly insulated.  First, when the observer is within 2 سور of the sun being seen from the planet, the reflection is dramatically created.  Such so-called opposition surges are characteristic of loose-fitting particles that shadow each other, except for the special geometry in which the observer corresponds to the light source and reflects the light directly from the spaces between the particles.  Can see  Second, changes in surface temperature appear to follow the sun during the day, with no significant intervals due to thermal inertia.  Again, such behavior is characteristic of unsafe surfaces that block the internal flow of heat.

         Auburn, the largest of Uranus' five largest moons, as recorded by Voyager 2 on January 24, 1986.  This image, taken from the best of the moon, shows several large impact pits surrounded by bright rays of ejaculation.  The most notable crater, located just below Oberon's disc, has a bright central peak and a floor partially covered with black material.  Rising on the lower left limb against a dark background is a mountain approximately 6 km (4 miles) high.

         NASA / Caltech / JPL

         Practically all that is known about the specific superficial characters of Uranus's giant moons comes from Voyager 2, which passed through them in a matter of hours and photographed only their sunlit southern hemisphere.  O'Brien, and Umbrella in particular, represent the dense population of large-impact citadels, similar to the highlands of the Earth's moon and many of the oldest regions in the solar system.  In contrast, Titania and Ariel have very few large craters (50–100 km [30–60 mi] in diameter) but their numbers are comparable in smaller sizes.  Larger craters are thought to be four billion years older than the early history of the solar system, when large planets still existed, while smaller craters reflect recent events, including, perhaps, the effects of knocked objects.  Are  Loose than other moons in the uranium system.  Thus, the surfaces of Titania and Ariel should be smaller than the surfaces of Auburn and Umbrella.  These differences, which do not follow any clear pattern regarding the distance of the moon from Uranus or their size, are largely obscure.

         Umbrella, the third closest and darkest of the five largest moons of Uranus, in an image created by Voyager 2 on January 24, 1986.  Umbrella is also the heaviest and evenly crater in the large Uranine moons, indicating that very little work has been done on its surface.  Through tectonic activity in the past.  This view shows the southern hemisphere in Umbrella sunlight.  The bright ring near the moon's equator (at the top of the picture), called Wanda, is a mysterious feature that appears to line the floor of the impacting pit.

         NASA / JPL

         Volcanic deposits seen on large moons are usually flat, with shoreline and surface waves characteristic of fluid flow.  Some deposits are bright, while others are dark.  Due to the extremely low temperatures expected for the outer solar system, the erupting fluid was probably a mixture of water and ammonia, the melting point of which is below the ice of pure water.  Differences in brightness can indicate differences in the structure or surface history of the erupting fluid.

         Ariel, one of the five largest moons of Uranus, in a mosaic of photographs taken on January 24, 1986 by Voyager 2 during a flight through the Uranus system.  Small impact pits - close to the resolution limit in this image - most of the moon's surface.  The most notable features are the spots and valleys that traverse the rugged terrain.  Some valleys are partially filled with material that may have risen from the interior of the moon.

         Jet Propulsion Laboratory / National Aeronautics and Space Administration

         The raft-like valley visible on the big moons means the expansion and rupture of their surfaces.  The Miranda valleys are the most spectacular, some 80 kilometers (50 miles) wide and 15 kilometers (9 miles) deep.  The eruption of the crust was caused by an increase in the size of the moon, which is estimated to be in the range of 1-2%, except for Miranda, for which this expansion is considered to be 6%.  The spread of Miranda can be explained by the fact that all the water forming its interior is once liquid and then freezes after the formation of crust.  By freezing at low pressure, the water would expand and thus spread and disperse the surface.  Liquid water is unlikely to be present on the surface at any stage of the moon's history.

         Miranda, the innermost of the large moons of Uranus and the most diverse in terms of topography, in a mosaic of images obtained by Voyager 2 on January 24, 1986.  In this South Pole landscape, the old, heavily pitted region is connected to the great currents of youth.  , Light-pitted areas characterized by parallel bright and deep bands, spots and peaks.  The patches, called coronae, are unique to Miranda in all parts of the solar system.

         US Geological Survey / NASA / JPL

         Miranda has a mess of something made up of separate pieces that didn't fit together completely.  The base surface is very deep, but is disturbed by three light-pitted regions, which astronomers have named Coroni (but which are not geologically related to the surface features of Venus of the same name).  They are quite square in shape, approximately the length of a Miranda radius on one side, and are surrounded by parallel bands that revolve around the edges.  The boundaries where the corona meets the crater are sharp.  Corona is the opposite of the features found elsewhere in the solar system.  Whether they reflect a different origin for the moon, a larger effect that shattered it, or a unique pattern of eruption from its interior is not known.

         Ring system

         The orbits of Uranus were the first to be found around a planet other than Saturn.  Nine years before the collision of Voyager 2 in 1977, American astronomer James L. Elliott and his colleagues performed a stellar spell by Uranus, meaning that when the planet passed between a star and the Earth, the starlight  Stopping, he discovered the color system from the ground.  .  Unexpectedly, they saw the star fade briefly five times before and after landing on the planet's star at some considerable distance above the atmosphere of Uranus.  The decrease in brightness indicates that the planet is surrounded by five narrow circles.  Later ground-based observations revealed four additional circles.  Voyager 2 detected the 10th ring and found clues from others.  Outside of Uranus, 10 is named 6, 5, 4, Alpha, Beta, Eta, Gamma, Delta, Lambda and Epsilon.  This cumbersome name arose because new rings were found in places that did not match the original name.  The characteristics of the rings are given in the table.

         Rings of Uranus

         Name distance from the center of the planet (km) Observed width (km) * Equal width (km) **

         * Value range reflects real variations in latitude and measurement error.

         ** Equal width is the product of the observed width and the dimming part of the light and is given for visible light.

         6 41,837 1–2 0.66

         5 42,235 2–7 1.23

         4 42,571 1–6 1.06

         Alpha 44,718 4–11 3.86

         Beta 45,661 4–13 3.16

         Eta 47,176 1–4 0.64

         Gamma 47,627 2–8 3.13

         Delta 48,300 3–8 2.69

         Lambda 50,026 2–3 0.3

         Epsilon 51,149 20–95 42.8

         Circles are narrow and quite vague.  Observed widths are only the radial distances between the beginning and end of individual fading events.  Product of equal width radial distance (more precisely, integral) and part of the starlight is blocked.  The fact that the equivalent widths are generally less than the observed widths indicates that the circles are not completely obscure.  Combining the brightness of the circles seen in the Voyager images with the width equal to the magic shows that the colored particles reflect less than 5% of the sunlight.  Their almost flat reflection spectrum means that the particles are mainly gray in color.  Ordinary mascara, which is mostly carbon, is the closest ground analogue.  It is unknown at this time what he will do after leaving the post.

         The scattering effects on Voyager's radio signals were spread through circles on Earth, which are mostly composed of large particles, more than 140 centimeters (4.6 feet) long.  The scattering of sunlight when Voyager was far away from the circles and its camera was back towards the sun, also revealed small particles of dust in the micrometer size range.  Only a small amount of dust was found in the central circles.  Instead, most of the microscope particles were distributed in the spaces between the central circles, indicating that the circles were losing mass as a result of the collision.  The life span of dust in orbit around Uranus is limited by the planet's diffuse atmosphere and the radiation pressure of sunlight.  Dust particles move to the lower orbit and eventually fall into the uranium atmosphere.  Mathematical orbital life is so short - 1,000 years - that dust must be created quickly and continuously.  Dragging Uranus into space seems so large that current circles themselves could be short-lived.  If so, the rings did not form with Uranus, and their origin and date are unknown.

         The collision between the particles of the tightly filled ring will naturally increase the radial width of the circles.  Moons larger than rings can stop its spread in a process called shepherding.  Specific orbits that occur inside or outside the orbit of a given circle are at a suitable radius for the moon in such an orbit so that a stable dynamic resonance is established with the particles in the circle.  The condition for resonance is that the orbital periods of the moon and the particles of the circle are related to each other in the ratio of small whole numbers.  In this type of relationship, as the moon and particles pass through each other from time to time, they interact with gravity in a way that maintains the regularity of competition.  The moon applies pure torque to the ring, and as the moon and the ring exchange angular momentum, energy is dispersed by collision between the particles in the ring.  The result is that the moon and the ring particles repel each other.  Every body in the outer orbit moves outwards, while the body in the inner orbit moves inwards.  Because the moon is much larger than the ring, it prevents the ring from spreading in the radius at which it resonates.  A pair of shepherd's moons, on either side of a ring, can maintain its narrow width.

         Voyager 2 found that the innermost two moons, Cordelia and Ophelia, were needed for the shepherd to orbit on the far right in either orbit of the Epsilon ring.  Shepherds have not been observed for other circles, perhaps because the moons are too small to be seen in Voyager images.  Small moons can also be deposits that leave the color system and provide dust.

         The part of the ring system of Uranus that contains the Epsilon ring lit by its two shepherds, Cordelia and Ophelia, in a photograph obtained by Voyager 2 on January 21, 1986, of the spacecraft's Urine.  Three days before the closest approach to the system.  Many other rings of Uranus can be seen on the inside of the Epsilon ring.

         Jet Propulsion Laboratory / National Aeronautics and Space Administration

         Observations from the ground

         Uranus was discovered by the English astronomer William Herschel, who surveyed all the stars below the eighth magnitude - the stars that are five times weaker than the stars visible to the naked eye.  On March 13, 1781, he discovered "a curious star, or perhaps a comet," distinguishing it from a disk clearly visible to the stars.  With no trace of its tail and its slow movement, it came to the conclusion within months that the object was a planet, rather than a comet, orbiting Saturn in an almost circular orbit.  Observations of the new planet over the next 65 years revealed discrepancies in its orbital motion - evidence of the forces of gravity on Uranus that were not due to any other known planet, which eventually led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846.  Made

         Herschel suggested the name of his new discovery Georgium Siddus (Latin: "Georgian Star"), but Herschel and others called it the "Georgian Planet" - in honor of their patron, King George III of England, while the French named Herschel's  Name supported.  The planet was eventually named after the Greek and Roman mythological deities.  Uranus is the father of Saturn, who in turn is the father of Jupiter.

         The orbit of Uranus seems to fulfill a simple experimental principle, the prediction of Baude's law, which was formulated in 1766 and became popular in 1772 to measure the Earth's orbital distance from the Sun and the five planets known to the ancients.  To be explained.  In addition, where the law predicted another planet between Mars and Jupiter, the planets appeared to be filling the gap, beginning in 1801 with the discovery of the largest planet, Ceres.  For almost three-quarters of a century, these achievements overcame doubts.  From the fact that the law had no ideological basis and that it provided only an approximate fit for the orbits of the planets.  Neptune did not fit this pattern at all (approximately 21% closer to the Sun as predicted by the law), nor did Pluto, and now Bod's law is only historically significant.

         After the discovery of Uranus, Herschel continued to observe it with larger and better telescopes, and finally in 1787 discovered his two largest moons, Titania and Oberon.  The absence of these moons was not realized until the middle of the 19th century, despite an almost complete lack of confirmation from other astronomers.  Did  The Four Moons comes from English literature, taken from the characters of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope, and was suggested by Herschel's son John.  (The names of the children of Uranus, the Titans, have already been assigned to the moons of Saturn.)  The works of Shakespeare and the Pope continued to apply to later discoveries.

         Search for the spacecraft

         In this computer animation of the Voyager 2 space probe, discover Uranus' nightside and ring system as it emerges from the planet's solar system.

         This computer animation shows the Voyager 2 space probe with the planet Uranus on January 24, 1986.  As the spacecraft moves toward the planet's night shore, Uranus's system of thin circles becomes increasingly visible.  Near the end of the sequence, the distant sun passes behind Uranus, while Voyager 2 begins to move away from the solar system at its own speed.

         NASA

         Watch all the videos for this article

         Although the twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft missions originally required only the fly-bikes of Jupiter and Saturn, the launch time of the Voyager 2 allowed it to change its speed to allow Uranus and Neptune to launch an expansion mission.  But could be targeted again.  Was finally done.  After more than eight years in space, Voyager 2 passed through the uranium system on January 24, 1986.  His instruments accurately determined the size and radiology of the planet and its large moons, detected the magnetic field of Uranus and determined its strength and direction.  , And measured the rate of internal rotation of the planet.  Images of the Uranium system, numbering more than 8,000, show for the first time the weather patterns in the planet's atmosphere and the surface features of the moon.  In addition to Voyager's discovery of the new moon, a ring, and the dust band between the rings, he provided details of the structure of the ring on a non-ground scale.  Yet, despite these successes, Voyager has left many unanswered questions that only one other spacecraft could solve with a major breakthrough in mission or ground-based observation technology.  No future missions are planned for Uranus.

Earth's magnetic field

 Earth's magnetic field

 , Geographic magnetism, terrestrial magnetism

  

 

  Geographical field, the magnetic field attached to the earth.  It is basically bipolar at the surface of the earth (that is, it has two poles, the geographic north and south).  Dupole distorts off the surface.

  The magnetic field of a bar magnet

 

   Polar polar orbital magnetic storm electro jet chapman ferro current system

 

  Understand the geographical area of ​​the earth through the principle of dynamo effect.

  The currents in the center of the earth create a magnetic field according to a principle called the dynamo effect.

 

  In the 1830's, the German mathematician and astronomer Carl Friedrich Gass studied the Earth's magnetic field and concluded that the principal Doppler component is inside the Earth rather than outside.  It showed that the doppler component was a decreasing function inversely proportional to the square of the Earth's radius, a result that led scientists to speculate on the origin of the Earth's magnetic field in terms of ferromagnetism (such as a huge bar).  In the magnet), different rotation theories, and different dynamo theories.  Theories of ferromagnetism and rotation are generally discredited - ferromagnetism because the curry point (the temperature at which ferromagnetism is destroyed) reaches only 20 kilometers or more (approximately 12 miles) below the surface.  There is, and is, a theory of rotation because there seems to be no fundamental relationship between mass.  Movement and its associated magnetic field.  Most geomagnetists find themselves dealing with various dynamo theories, according to which a source of energy in the center of the earth causes a self-sustaining magnetic field.

  Earth's stable magnetic field is created by sources both above and below the surface of the planet.  Outside the cover, these include geomagnetic dynamos, crystal magnetization, ion spherical dynamos, ring currents, magnetopaz currents, tail currents, field-connected currents, and orbital or connective electro jets.  Geomagnetic dynamo is the most important resource because, without this field, there would be no other resource.  The effect of other sources, not more than the surface of the earth, is just as strong or stronger than that of a geomagnetic dynamo.  In the ensuing discussion, each of these sources is considered and the reasons given are explained.

  Earth's magnetic field is subject to change at all times.  Each of the major sources of the so-called stable field undergoes changes that cause temporary variations, or disruptions.  There are two major obstacles in the main field: cosperiodic reversals and secular transformation.  The ionospheric dynamo is concerned with seasonal and solar cycle changes, as well as solar and lunar marine effects.  The current of the ring responds to the solar wind (the ionized atmosphere of the sun which spreads outwards in space and carries with it the solar magnetic field), the strength increases when the proper conditions of the solar wind are present.  There is another phenomenon associated with the development of ring current, the magnetospheric substorm, which is most clearly seen in the aurora borealis.  A very different type of magnetic variation is caused by magnetic hydrodynamic (MHD) waves.  These waves are sinusoidal changes in the electrical and magnetic fields that are associated with changes in particle density.  These are the means by which information about changes in electromagnetism is transmitted, both inside the earth and in the atmosphere around charged particles.  Each of these sources of change is also discussed separately below.

  The position of the Earth's geographic North Pole

  A map of the Earth's Arctic region marks the known geographical locations and times of the North Pole since 1900.

  Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski

  Observation of the Earth's magnetic field

  Field representation

  The electric and magnetic fields are created by the electric charge, a basic property of matter.  Electric fields are created by charges more comfortable than an observer, while magnetic fields are created by moving charges.  The two fields are different aspects of the electromagnetic field, this is the force that causes the electric charges to interact with each other.  The electric field, E, is defined as the force per unit charge at any point around the distribution of charge when a positive test charge is placed at that point.  For point charges, the electric field refers to a positive charge radically far and a negative charge.

  A magnetic field is created by moving charges.  Magnetic induction, B, can be defined as E. The force per unit is proportional to the strength of the pole when the test magnetic pole is brought close to the source of the magnet.  However, it is more common to define it with the Lorentz-force equation.  This equation states that the force felt by a charge q, moving with velocity v, is given by it.

  F = q (vxB).

  In this equation, bold letters indicate vectors (quantities that have both intensity and direction) and non-bold letters indicate scalar quantities such as B, length of vector B.  x represents a cross product (ie, a vector at right angles to both v and B, along the length vB ​​sin θ).  Theta vectors is the angle between v and b.  (B is commonly referred to as a magnetic field despite the fact that the name H is specific to quantities, which is also used in the study of magnetic fields.) For a simple line current, the field is cylindrical around the current.  The sense of field depends on the direction of current, which is defined as the direction of movement of positive charges.  The principle of the right hand defines the direction of B by stating that when the thumb points in the direction of the current, it points in the direction of the fingers of the right hand.

  In the International System of Units (SI), the electric field is measured in terms of potential conversion rate, volts per meter (V / m).  Magnetic fields are measured in Tesla (T) units.  Tesla is a large unit for geophysical observations, and a smaller unit, nanotesla (nT; one nanotesla equals 10−9 Tesla), is commonly used.  A nanotisella is the equivalent of a gamma, a unit originally defined as 10−5 gas, which is a unit of magnetic field in a centimeter second system.  Both Goss and Gamma are still widely used in the literature on geo-magnetism, although they are no longer standard units.

  Both the electric and magnetic fields are represented by vectors, which can be represented in different coordinate systems, such as Cartesian, polar, and spherical.  In the Cartesian system the vector is divided into three components which are approximated by the vector on three mutual orthogonal axes which are usually labeled x, y, z.  The vector at polar points is usually expressed by the length of the vector in the x-y plane, its angle of inclination in the plane relative to the x-axis, and the third Cartesian z component.  In spherical points, the field is defined as the total field vector length, the polar angle of the vector from the z axis, and the azimuth angle of the projection of the vector in the x-y plane.  All three systems are widely used in the study of the Earth's magnetic field.

  The names used in the study of geomagnetism for the various components of the vector field are summarized as follows.  B is the vector magnetic field, and F is the intensity or length of B.  X, Y, and Z are the three Cartesian components of the field, usually measured with reference to the geographical coordinate system.  X is to the north, Y is to the east, and, completing the right-hand system, Z is to the center of the earth vertically.  The magnitude of the field presented in the horizontal plane is called H.  This projection forms an angle D (for fall) from north to east.  Dip angle, I (for tilt) is the angle formed by the total field vector with respect to the horizontal plane and is positive for the vector below the plane.  This completes the normal polar angle of spherical points.  (Geographic and magnetic north meet the "Egonic Line".)

  Components of magnetic induction vectors

  The components of the magnetic induction vector, B, are shown in three integrated systems: Cartesian, Polar, and Spherical.

  Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

  Field measurement

  Magnetic fields can be measured in different ways.  The simplest measurement technique still used today involves the use of a compass, a device consisting of a permanent magnetic needle that is balanced to the axis in a horizontal plane.  In the presence of a magnetic field and in the absence of gravity, a magnetic needle aligns itself perfectly with the magnetic field vector.  When it is balanced on the axis in the presence of gravity, it attaches to a component of the field.  In the traditional compass, it is a horizontal component.  A magnetic needle can also be axial and balanced on a horizontal axis.  If this instrument, called a deep meter, is first pointed in the direction of a magnetic meridian by a compass, then the needle lines up with the total field vector and measures the angle of inclination I.  Finally, it is possible to measure the intensity.  Horizontal field through the doubles of the compass needle.  It can be shown that the duration of such oscillation depends on the characteristics of the needle and the strength of the field.

  Magnetic observatories constantly measure and record the Earth's magnetic field at various locations.  In such an observatory, magnetic needles are suspended by quartz fibers with a reflecting mirror.  Photographs mounted on the drum are photographed negatively as the rays of light reflected from the mirror rotate.  Variations in the field cause a relative deviation from the negative.  Typical scale factors for such observatories are 2–10 nanotypes per millimeter vertically and 20 millimeters per hour horizontally.  The printed negative print is called a magnetogram.

  Magnetic observatories have recorded data in this way for over 100 years.  Their magnetograms are photographed on microfilm and submitted to global data centers, where they are available for scientific or practical use.  Such applications include the creation of magnetic maps of the world for navigation and surveys.  Correction of data obtained from air, land and sea surveys for mineral and oil reserves;  And the scientific study of the sun's interaction with the earth.

  Other methods of measuring magnetic fields have become more convenient in recent years, and older instruments are slowly being replaced.  One such method involves a proton-precision magnetometer, which utilizes the magnetic and gyroscopic properties of protons in liquids such as gasoline.  In this method, the magnetic moment of the proton is first connected to a strong magnetic field produced by the outer coil.  Then the magnetic field suddenly stops, and the protons try to align themselves with the earth's field.  However, since protons are magnetic as well as rotating, they move with a frequency around the Earth's field, depending on the intensity of the latter.  The outer coil senses the weak voltage generated by this gear.  The duration of gyration is determined electronically with sufficient accuracy to produce sensitivity between 0.1 and 1.0 nanotesla.

  One device that complements the proton-precision magnetometer is the Flexgate magnetometer.  Unlike a proton-precision magnetometer, the FluxGate device measures the three components of a field vector rather than its amplitude.  It has three sensors, each connected to one of the three components of a field vector.  Each sensor is made of a high permeability material (e.g., mu-metal) wound from a transformer wound around the core.  The main winding of the transformer is excited with a high frequency (approximately 5 kHz) sine wave.  In the absence of any field along the axis of the transformer, the output signal in the secondary winding consists of only odd harmonics (component frequencies) of the drive frequency.  If, however, a field exists, it biases the hysteresis loop in one direction to the core.  As a result, one half of the drive cycle covers more quickly than the other.  As a result, the secondary voltage incorporates all the coordinates as well as the oddity.  The amplitude and phase of the avon harmonics are linearly proportional to the field component along the axis of the transformer.

  Most modern magnetic observatories have both proton-precision magnetometers and flux gate magnetometers mounted on granite columns in non-magnetic, temperature-controlled rooms.  The output from the devices is electrical signals, and they are digitized and recorded on magnetic media.  Many observatories also transfer their data to central facilities immediately after acquisition, where they are stored in a large computer database with data from other locations.

  Magnetic measurements are often made at locations far from designated observatories.  Such measurements are usually part of a survey designed to better describe the Earth's central field or to detect anomalies in it.  Such surveys are usually carried out on foot, by plane, by air and by space.  The proton-precision magnetometer is almost always used for surveys near the surface of the earth because it does not need to be attached.  The central field above ground level is rapidly declining, and the need for precise alignment is less acute.  Thus, flex gate magnetometers are typically mounted on a spacecraft.  Knowledge of the location and direction of a spacecraft is required to calculate the components of a vector field in a ground coordinate system.

  Characteristics of Earth's Magnetic Field

  The magnetic field observed on the surface of the earth is like a magnet attached to the planet's rotating axis.  Statistics show such a field for a bar magnet located in the center of a sphere.  If the Earth is taken along the North Geographic Pole at the top of the diagram, then the direction of the magnet along its North Magnetic Pole should be downwards towards the South Geographic Pole.  Then, as shown in the diagram, the lines of the magnetic field leave the north pole of the magnet and rotate until they cross the Earth's equator, pointing north geographically.  ۔  They orbit the earth further in the northern latitudes, eventually returning to the south pole of the magnet.  At present, the North Pole equals the bar equal to the South Pole of the magnet.  This has not always been the case.  Many times in the history of the earth the direction of the equivalent magnet has been pointed in the opposite direction