Venus Planet

 Venus facts

  Rotating in the opposite direction of most of the planets, Venus is the hottest planet, and one of the brightest objects in the sky.

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  September 26, 2019

  Venus is the second and sixth largest planet in the Sun.  Together with Mercury, they are the only planets that do not have a satellite. Although Mercury is close to the Sun, Venus is the hottest planet.

  Key facts and summary

  Due to its proximity to Earth, Venus has been observed many times by ancient astronomers of different cultures, however, the first accurate observation was made by Galileo Galilei in 1610.

  Galileo looked at Venus through a telescope and determined that its phases were like those of the moon.  This helped to support Copernican's theory that planets revolve around the sun and not, as previously thought.

  Because Venus is the brightest object in the sky after the moon and sun, she was named the Roman goddess of beauty and love, the ancient Greeks named her Aphrodite.

  In ancient times, Venus was taught in the sky as two different objects: the mourning star and the evening star.  In the case of Mercury, this too was mistaken for two different things.

  It is the only planet named after a female deity and is the brightest planet in the solar system.

  Although it can be easily seen, its surface is covered with thick clouds, so it has long been thought to be like the earth.

  When its surface was observed, it was discovered that its clouds were in fact made up of sulfuric acid and water vapor, but more importantly, its temperature was measured at an average of 465 degrees Celsius.  Is 900 degrees Fahrenheit, which is hot enough to melt lead.  .

  The nearest planet to the Sun is about 62 degrees warmer than Mercury.  It was then concluded that the surface of Venus is the hottest of all the planets and its hopes of resemblance to Earth were dashed.  Its thick atmosphere traps heat in a falling greenhouse effect, which contributes greatly to the planet's high temperatures.

  Nevertheless, it is still considered to be the sister of the earth, and there are other similarities that support it: they have the same size and density, similar internal structure and similar mass, volume and  Environmental components of carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

  Venus reflects 70% of all the sunlight it receives, which is why it is so bright.

  Venus has a radius of 6.051 km or 3.760 miles and a diameter of 12.104 km or 7.521 miles, which is slightly smaller than the Earth.

  Venus weighs 4.87 × 1024 kg, or 85% of the Earth.  The aforementioned similarities give rise to a similar density. Venus has a density of 5.24 grams per cubic centimeter, while Earth has a density of 5.52.

  Venus is the second closest planet to the Sun, at a distance of 108.2 million km / 67.24 miles or 0.7 AU that receives sunlight in 6 minutes.  Its closest approach to Earth occurs once every 584 days, when the planets catch up with each other.  On average, it can reach 25 million miles or about 40 million kilometers from Earth.

  It takes Venus 225 days to complete one revolution around the Sun, or in other words, one year of Venus has 225 Earth days.  One day or rotation of Venus is longer than one year of Venus: One day of Venus is approximately 243 Earth days.

  This is the slowest rotation of any planet, making it the most spherical object after the sun.

  At the equator the planet is moving at a speed of about 6.5 kilometers per hour or 4 miles per hour.

  It has a minimal eccentric orbit, rotating in almost a perfect circle.

  Because of its radiance, Venus has been the most intricate thing in the sky.  Many people have misreported it as a UFO, and many still mistakenly report it as a UFO.

  Venus has a backward rotation, moving in the opposite direction to most of the planets, only Uranus does.  They both move clockwise from east to west.

  Venus has mountains, valleys and tens of thousands of volcanoes.  The highest mountain on Venus, Maxwell Montes, is 20,000 feet high / 8.8 km, which is similar to Mount Everest, the highest mountain on earth.

  Venus has no moon or color system and its magnetic field is weak due to its slow rotation.

  It is the most "seen" planet in the solar system, with more than 40 spacecraft.

  Venus

  It is not possible to determine the exact date of the discovery of Venus.  Because of its brilliance, it can be easily seen with the naked eye, meaning that any ancient civilization can be credited with the first observation.  However, Copernicus, and later Galileo Galilei are credited with classifying Venus as a planet, while Mikhail Lomonosov is credited with discovering the planet's gaseous atmosphere initially in 1761.  This claim was later confirmed by the astronomer Johann Schroeter in 1790.

  Although it has been visually observable for as long as mankind remembers, the name Venus is once again a mystery.  Venus gained its most famous manicure through the selection of Roman gods and goddesses.  Venus was named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, a counterpart of the Greek Aphrodite.  It was not always known that way.  The people of ancient Babylon who identified Venus as an example, named her Sitara Ashtar, their goddess of fertility, love and war.

  The female symbol has even been adopted as a symbol of love and strong women on this planet, the first and only one with a feminine name.  Before Venus was officially dubbed, the Greeks and Romans inadvertently turned Venus into two different stars.

  To the Greeks Venus was both phosphorus and Hesperus, and to the Romans it was known as Lucifer and Vesper.  The two countries did not know that the two alleged stars they were referring to were actually one body until further observations were made and its orbit was understood.

  Configuration

  The theory is that Venus was formed about 4.5 billion years ago when gravity pulled the rotating gas and dust together to form another planet and later settled in its present order.

  Distance, size and quantity

  Venus is the second closest planet to the Sun, at a distance of 108.2 million km / 67.24 miles or 0.7 AU that receives sunlight in 6 minutes.  Venus has a radius of 6.051 km or 3.760 miles and a diameter of 12.104 km or 7.521 miles, which is slightly smaller than the Earth.

  It weighs 4.87 × 1024 kg, or 85% of the earth's surface.  The aforementioned similarities give rise to a similar density. Venus has a density of 5.24 grams per cubic centimeter, while Earth has a density of 5.52.  It is about the same size as the Earth - 928.45 billion cubic kilometers compared to the Earth's 1083.21 billion.

  Its closest approach to Earth occurs once every 584 days, when the planets catch up with each other.  On average, it can reach 25 million miles or 40 million kilometers from Earth, which is approximately 0.28 AU.

  Orbit

  One of the reasons why ancient civilizations inadvertently turned Venus into two separate stars - The Morning Star and The Evening Star - was that they did not understand its orbit.  Venus is visible only after sunset and only before sunrise when its orbit around the Sun goes beyond the Earth's orbit.

  Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU and completes one orbit every 224.7 days.  Although the orbits of most planets are elliptical, the orbit of Venus is closest to the circle with eccentricity less than 0.01.  When Venus is in the inferior connection between the Earth and the Sun, it forms the closest view of any planet to Earth at a distance of 41 million kilometers or 25 million miles.  Venus spends most of her time away from Earth.  This, by contrast, makes Mercury the closest planet to Earth, the most abundant of all time.

  The orbit is slightly inclined towards the Earth's orbit.  When Venus passes between the Earth and the Sun, it does not normally cross the face of the Sun.

  Venus's transit occurs when the planet's inferior connection coincides with its presence in the Earth's orbital spacecraft.

  Venus travels in cycles of 243 years, in which the current pattern of transit is about 105.5 years or 121.5 intervals of transit pairs separated by eight years.

  The pentagram of Venice

  When plotted geographically - from the point of view of the center of the earth, Venus has a very noticeable rhythm in motion.  After 8 years, it returns to the same place in the sky on the same date.

  This was known to many ancient civilizations like Maya, it is called the pentagram of Venus.

  In eight years, each phenomenon - each relative position of the Earth, Venus and the Sun - occurs five times, and then over the next eight years they repeat almost the same five times.  References and Credits - Guy Outwell - Earthsky.

  circulation

  Venus has a backward rotation, moving in the opposite direction to most of the planets, only Uranus does.  They both move clockwise from east to west.  Venus orbits once every 243 Earth days, with the slowest rotation of all the planets in the solar system.

  This slow rotation also affects its shape, which makes Venus very spherical.  One day of Venus is longer than one year of Venus - 225 Earth days.  For comparison, the equator of Venus rotates at a speed of 6.52 km per hour while the earth rotates at a speed of 1,674.4 km per hour.

  It has been observed that it is slowing down even more.  In the 16 years between the Magellan spacecraft and the Venus Express, Venus's rotation has slowed to 6.5 minutes.

  Theories suggest that this slow and retrograde rotation is due to the fact that Venus has encountered collisions in the past, while some see it as a state of equilibrium between the Sun's gravitational ocean pools.  , Which slows down the circulation, and creates an ecological wave.  From the solar heat of the atmosphere of thick Venus.

  Axial tilt

  Venus has tilted 2.7 degrees from the eclipse plane, meaning it is almost completely inverted.  Because of this, Venus does not experience any weather that rotates almost straight.

  Structure and geology

  Venus is very similar to Earth in its structure.  The base is about 2,000 miles or 3,200 kilometers in radius.  Above this cover is a veil of hot rock, which is slowly melting due to the internal heat of the planet.  As a result, the surface is a thin layer of rock that rises and moves with the change of Venus's veil, creating a volcano.

  Its center is at least partially liquid, as both Venus and Earth begin to cool at the same rate.  Due to its small size, it is estimated that Venus's pressure in its deep interior is about 24% lower.

  About 80% of Venus's surface is covered by flat, volcanic plains, with 70% plain strip and 10% flat or lobbied plains.  Venus has two elevated "continents" that make up the rest of its surface.  One planet is located in the northern hemisphere and is called Ashtar Terra after the Babylonian goddess Ashtar of love and is about the size of Australia.

  The highest mountain on Venus is called Maxwell Montes and it is located here, its peak is about 11 kilometers or 7 miles above the average elevation of Venus.

  The second "continent" is located in the southern hemisphere south of the equator, and is named after the Greek goddess Aphrodite Terra.  It is one of the two largest South American highlands.  There is a network of fractures and faults that cover most of the area.  The flow of lava and the absence of evidence of calderas is a mystery.

  With a few more small impact pits, it is suggested that the dense atmosphere of Venus burns the small meteorite, and at the same time indicates that its surface is young.  As far as we know, Venus does not have tectonic activity like Earth.

  Water is thought to help it run, and Venus lost its water long ago due to the greenhouse effect.  Although the surface appears young, it has pits that appear to be eroding evenly, pointing to a catastrophic event that re-emerged on Earth about half a billion years ago.  All the traits that were old were erased, and over time the big impacts created these new youth pits.

  It is believed that a volcano on the surface of Venus recreated the planet.  There is ample indirect evidence that volcanic activity continues to this day.  Sulfur dioxide levels fell in 1980, which may indicate that a major volcanic eruption occurred in 1870, which released large amounts of gas, which then receded.

  The theory is that without tectonics, the gradual emission of lava from the interior of the planet could continue for a long time in one place called "pancake domes".

  the environment

  The atmosphere is mainly composed of carbon dioxide 96.5% and nitrogen 3.5% which are traces of other gases, especially sulfur dioxide.  Venus has dense clouds consisting mainly of droplets of sulfuric acid, about 75-96%.

  This thick atmosphere traps the sun's heat, which reflects up to 75% of the sunlight that falls on them.  As a result of this atmosphere, the surface temperature is 465 degrees Celsius, more than 900 degrees Fahrenheit, which is hot enough to melt lead.  The atmosphere is 93 times larger than the Earth's, which is equivalent to about 1 km or 0.62 miles below sea level.

  The surface density is 65 kg / m3, 6.5% of the water, or at 293 K (20 ° C; 68 ° F) above sea level, 50 times denser than the Earth's atmosphere.

  Despite its slow rotation, strong winds of 300 kilometers per hour (185 miles per hour) on cloud tops revolve around Venus every four to five Earth days.  The winds on Venus move 60 times faster than their rotation speed, while the fastest winds on Earth move at only 10-20% rotation speed.

  The speed inside the clouds decreases with the height of the clouds, and the surface is estimated to be only a few miles per hour.

  The highest point on Venus is Maxwell Montes, so it is the coldest point on Venus, with a temperature of about 655 K (380 ° C ؛ 715 ° F) and an atmospheric pressure of about 4.5 MPa (45 bar).

  Magnetic sphere

  The size of Venus is similar to Earth's, and regardless of its corresponding iron core, the magnetic field is much weaker than Earth's due to slow rotation and thus is generally considered to be non-magnetic.  Goes

  However, it has an excited magnetic field created by the solar wind from the sun's magnetic field.

  Due to the lack of an internal magnetic field on Venus, the solar wind penetrates relatively deep into the planet's outer sphere and causes considerable damage to the atmosphere.  Damage occurs mainly through the tail of the magnetosphere.  The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen losses is approximately 2 or approximately stoichiometric, indicating continued loss of water.

  Quality of life

  It is widely believed that Venus was once a habitable planet with vast oceans, with some even thinking that life would have evolved there and then somehow moved to Earth.  Others believe that Venus had oceans, but due to the high concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, it is thought that the planet was covered in a liquid of carbon dioxide which eventually evaporated.

  It has recently been discovered that there is a large vortex on both the poles of Venus.  The altitude is approximately 59 km, which is just above the cloud deck and the air pressure and temperature are tolerable to the earth's standards.  Some scientists have speculated.  At lower temperatures, acids may be present in the upper layers of the Venus atmosphere.

  In August 2019, astronomers reported that the newly discovered long-term pattern of absorption and albedo changes in the planet Venus's atmosphere is due to "unknown absorbers"  There may be colonies.  It remains to be seen.

  Satellites

  Theories suggest that Venus once had a moon, which was formed after the collision.  This was followed by another collision which shattered the moon.  It is believed that the moon actually collided with Venus, thus having an unusual rotation.

  Future plans for Venus

  Venus has seen more than 40 spacecraft land on it because of its proximity to us.  Because of its proximity, it will always be the target of future studies and even of possible colonies.  Scientists have also talked about "floating cities" in Venus.  There are still missions going on, until recently in November 2019, NASA received some designs of a dunk-like spacecraft that could better observe and analyze Venus through a team at the University of Buffalo.

  do you know?

  - The temperature on Venus remains the same regardless of day and night.

  - Venus may appear in the sky as a white dot of light, its apparent intensity is -4.14 and standard deviation is 0.31.  It can also be seen in the clear afternoon sky, and is more easily seen when the sun is low or setting on the horizon.

  - Venus is always located at 47 degrees of the sun.

  - The Earth revolves around the Sun 8 times in every 13 orbits of Venus.

  - Venus has many times more volcanoes than Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) long.

  - The Venus tablet of Amesdoka, believed to have been formed in the middle of the seventeenth century BC, shows that the Babylonians believed that the evening star and the morning star were one and the same thing.  The tablet is called "the bright queen of the sky".  , And can support this view with detailed observations.

  - Although the first Americans to land on the moon, in 1967 they were the first Russians to send unmanned spacecraft to Venice.  The spacecraft's name was Venera 4, many other spacecraft had the same name but different numbers were sent after that.

  - The spacecraft sent to Venus could not run for more than an hour due to crushing environment and harsh conditions.

  - Venus is the second of the four terrestrial planets.

  - Venus is the first planet in the solar system whose orbit has been formed in the sky by ancient civilizations.

  -

  - Mercury and Venus revolve around the Sun in Earth's orbit, making them inferior planets.

   Astronomy

  First record: 14th century BC

  Surface temperature: 462 C

  Orbit duration: 224.70 Earth days

  Distance to orbit: 108,209,475 km (0.73 AU)

  Notable Moon: None.

  Famous Moon: None.

  Equator: 38,025 km

  Polar diameter: 12,104 km

  Equatorial diameter: 12,104 km

  Quantity: 4,867,320,000,000,000 billion kilograms (0.815 x Earth)

Mars Planet

 Astronomy

   Mars

   Planet

  

   How far is Mars from Earth?

   What is the size of Mars?

   What do Mars and Earth have in common?

   What is the temperature on Mars?

   When did Viking 1 and Viking 2 land on Mars?

   Should humans inhabit space on Mars?

   Mars, the fourth planet in the solar system in terms of distance from the Sun, and the seventh planet in size and mass.  This is the most noticeable reddish thing in the night sky from time to time.

   Mars

   A particularly quiet view of Mars (Thrace Side), a collection of images taken in April 1999 by the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft.  The dark mound surrounding the Arctic cap and the Vestatus borealis is visible in the upper part of the world.  Clouds of white water ice surround the most prominent volcanic peaks, including Olympus Mons near the western limbs, Alba Petra to its northeast, and the Thracian volcanic line to the southeast.  Near the equator east of the height of Thrace can be seen a huge gash marking the valley system Wallace Mariners.

   Sometimes called the Red Planet, Mars has long been associated with war and slaughter.  It is named after the Roman god of war.  Until 3,000 years ago, Babylonian astronomers called the planet Nergal their god of death and plague.  The two moons of the planet, Phobos (Greek: "fear") and Demos ("terror") were named after the two sons of Iris and Aphrodite (in Greek mythology the counterparts of Mars and Venus, respectively).

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   Space Odyssey

   "far off".  "Specially".  "Out of this world".  You may have heard abusive gossip, but how much do you really know about space ... cadets?  Join this quiz and start your journey of planets and universe.

   Planetary data for Mars

   * The planet needs more time to return to the same position in the sky than the sun, as seen from Earth.

   Average distance from the sun 227,943,824 km (1.5 AU)

   The eccentricity of the orbit is 0.093

   The tilt of the orbit is 1.85 طرف towards the lunar eclipse

   Year of Mars (Revolutionary Period) 686.98 Earth Days

   Visual Intensity Average Opposition at .02.01

   Mean synodic period * 779.94 Earth days

   The average orbital speed is 24.1 kilometers per second

   The radius of the equator is 3,396.2 km

   North Pole radius 3,376.2 km

   South Pole radius 3,382.6 km

   Surface area 1.44 × 108 km2

   Mass 6.417 x 1023 kg

   Average density 3.93 g / cm3

   Average surface gravity 371 cm / sec2

   Escape speed 5.03 km / s

   Duration of rotation (cidral day of Mars) 24 hours 37 minutes 22.663 seconds

   Mars means solar day (civil) 24 hours 39 minutes 36 seconds.

   Tilt the equator toward 25.2

   Average surface temperature 210 K (82 ° F, −63 ° C)

   Normal surface pressure 0.006 bar

   Number of known moons 2

   In recent times, Mars has attracted people for more important reasons than its blasphemous appearance.  This planet is the second closest to Earth after Venus and is usually easier to observe in the night sky because its orbit is outside the Earth.  It is also the only planet whose solid surface and atmospheric reflections can be seen through telescopes from Earth.  A centuries-long study by ground observers spread through spacecraft observations since the 1960s has revealed that Mars resembles Earth in many ways.  Like Earth, Mars has clouds, winds, about 24 hours a day, weather patterns, polar ice caps, volcanoes, valleys and other familiar features.  Interesting indications are that billions of years ago, Mars was much more like Earth than it is today, with dense, warm climates and abundant water - rivers, lakes, floodplains and perhaps oceans.  By all accounts, Mars is now a sterile, frozen desert.  However, close photographs of the black lines on the slopes of some of the crater during the spring and summer of Mars suggest that at least a small amount of water may flow seasonally over the planet's surface, and below the South Pole cap.  This is indicated by the radar reflection from a possible lake.  Water may still be present as a liquid in safe areas below the surface.  The presence of water on Mars is considered a major problem because life, as it is now understood, cannot exist without water.  If microscopic life forms ever appeared on Mars, there is still a long way to go before they can survive in these hidden waters.  In 1996, a team of scientists reported what they concluded as evidence of ancient microbial life in a piece of meteorite coming from Mars, but most scientists disagreed with their interpretation.  ۔

   Since at least the end of the 19th century, Mars has been considered the most hospitable place for both local life and human exploration and habitat in the extraterrestrial solar system.  At the time, speculation was rife that the so-called canals of Mars - the complex system of long, straight-line lines that very few astronomers claimed to have seen in telescopic observations - were the creation of intelligent creatures.  Climate change in the planet's appearance, which is attributed to vegetation spreading and retreating, has added to the evidence required for biological activity.  However, these canals later turned out to be deceptive, and climate change did not dampen public interest in the possibility of geographical, scientific, and the possibility of life on Mars and the planet, rather than biological.

   During the last century, Mars has gained a special place in popular culture.  From H. G. Wells and Edgar Rice Burroughs to Ray Bradbury in the 1950's and Kim Stanley Robinson in the 90's, Martin Canal's rise to prominence has been a movement for generations of fiction writers.  Mars has also been a central theme in radio, television, and film, perhaps the most infamous case being the radio play production of Orson Wales' HG Wales novel War of the World, which drew thousands of immature listeners on the evening of October 30, 1938.  Persuaded  Creatures from Mars were invading the earth.  The mysticism of the planet and many real mysteries continue to be the impetus for both scientific research and the human imagination.

  

   Learn about the Martian Revolution on Earth.

   Find out how long a year is on Mars.

  

   Watch all the videos for this article

   Mars is the fourth planet to emerge from the sun.  It revolves around the sun at an average distance of 228 million kilometers (140 million miles), or about 1.5 times the distance of the earth from the sun.  Due to the relatively long orbit of Mars, the distance between Mars and the Sun ranges from 206.6 million to 249.2 million kilometers (128.4 million to 154.8 million miles).  Mars orbits the Sun once every 687 Earth days, which means its year is almost twice as long as Earth's.  At its closest point, Mars is less than 56 million kilometers (35 million miles) from Earth, but when the two planets are in opposite directions to the solar system, it is reduced to about 400 million kilometers (250 million miles).  Is.

   The easiest way to observe Mars is when it and the Sun are in opposite directions in the sky - that is, in the opposite direction - because it then rises high in the sky and shows a completely bright face.  Conflicts occur almost every 26 months.  Conflicts can occur in different places in the orbit of Mars.  The best things to see are when the planet is closest to the sun, and similarly to the earth, because Mars is then the brightest and largest.  Close opposition occurs almost every 15 years.

   Mars rotates on its axis once every 24 hours and 37 minutes, making a day on Mars a little longer than a day on Earth.  Its axis of rotation is about 25 ° inclined towards its orbital plane, and as far as the Earth is concerned, tilt gives rise to the seasons on Mars.  The year of Mars consists of 668.6 solar days of Mars called Souls.  Due to the elliptical orbit, southern temperatures are lower (154 on Mars) and warmer than northern (178 on Mars).  The situation is slowly changing, however, as 25,000 years from now, northern summers will be shorter and warmer.  In addition, the tilt of the axis, or tilt, is slowly changing over a time scale of about one million years.  Oblivion can occur near zero during the current period, when Mars has no weather, up to 45, when the climatic differences are extreme.  In 100 million years, obliqueness can reach up to 80%.

   Seasons of Mars

   Mars weather, the result of a 24.9 جھ tilt of the planet towards its orbital plane.  At this time, southern summer occurs when the long orbit of Mars brings it closer to the sun.  As the seasons change, the polar caps alternate and shrink.  At its maximum size, the southern cap extends approximately 5 times toward the equator than the northern cap.

  

   Mars is a small planet, only larger than Mercury and slightly larger than Earth.  It has an equatorial radius of 3,396 km (2,110 mi) and an average polar radius of 3,379 km (2,100 mi).  The mass of Mars is only one-tenth of the Earth's value, and its gravitational speed of 3.72 meters (12.2 feet) per second on the surface means that the objects on Mars weigh about one-third of their weight on Earth's surface.  There is more.  Mars has only 28% of the Earth's surface area, but because more than two-thirds of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth's surface area can be compared.  For additional orbital and physical data, see Table.

   Early telescopic observations

   Mars was a mystery to the ancient astronomers, who were amazed by its seemingly fascinating motion in the sky; sometimes in the direction of the sun and other celestial objects (direct, or progress, motion), sometimes in the opposite direction (  Opposite movement).  In 1609, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, through his Danish colleague Tycho Bray, used the observations of the planet's high naked eye to experimentally estimate its laws of motion, and thus the modern gravitational theory of the solar system.  Paved the way for  Kepler found that the orbit of Mars is an ellipse with which the planet moves in unequal but predictable motion.  Earlier, astronomers based their views on the old Ptolemaic idea of ​​circular orbits and uniform motion classification.

   The earliest telescopic observations on Mars that showed the planet's disk were made in 1610 by the Italian astronomer Galileo.  In 1659, Huygens made a drawing of Mars showing a large black mark on the planet, now called Syrtis Major.  The polar caps of Mars were first noted in 1666 by the Italian-born French astronomer Gian Dominico Cassini.

   Visual observers later made many important discoveries.  The period of the planet's rotation was discovered by Haggins in 1659, and Cassini measured it in 24 hours and 40 minutes in 1666 - just 3 minutes by mistake.  The weak atmosphere of Mars was first noted by William Herschel, a British astronomer of German descent in the 1780s, who also measured the tilt of the planet's rotation axis and was the first to discuss the seasons on Mars.  In 1877, Asaf Hall of the US Naval Observatory discovered that Mars had two natural satellites.  Telescopic observations have also documented many meteorological and meteorological phenomena occurring on Mars, such as different types of clouds, increasing and contraction of polar caps, and seasonal changes in the color and extent of dark regions.

   The first known map of Mars was made in 1830 by Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich von Mلdler of Germany.  Italian astronomer Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli created the first modern astronomical map of Mars in 1877, which contained the basis of the name system that is still in use today.  The names on the map are in Latin and are based primarily on the ancient geography of the Mediterranean region.  For the first time, the map also showed signs of a straight line interconnected system over bright areas, which he described as canals (Italian: "channels").  Schiaparelli is usually credited with his first description, but his compatriot Petro Angelo Sichi developed the Canali theory in 1869.  In the late 19th century, American astronomer Percival Lowell set up an observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, specifically to observe Mars, and produced it.  Extensive maps of the canals of Mars until his death in 1916.

   Mars as seen from Earth.

   For the Earth-based telescope observer, the surface of Mars outside the polar caps is characterized by bright red ocher-colored areas with visible black markings.  In the past, bright areas were called deserts, and the vast majority of dark areas were actually called Maria (Latin: "ocean" or "ocean"; single horse) in the idea that they were covered by water.  ۔  No topography can be seen with ground-based binoculars.  What is observed are changes in the brightness of the surface or changes in the opacity of the atmosphere.

   Mars: The last day of spring

   Mars (Certus Major Side) An image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope orbiting the Earth on March 10, 1997, the last day of the Martian spring in the Northern Hemisphere.  Long acquainted with telescopic observers.  The Arctic cap at the top has lost most of its annual frozen carbon dioxide layer, revealing a small permanent water cap and black collar sand dunes.  Syrtis Major is a large black mark just below the center and east.  Beneath it, on the southern limbs, is the gigantic Impact Basin Heels, which is covered by an elliptical portion of water ice clouds.  Clouds of water ice are also visible on the eastern limbs above the volcanic peaks in the Elysium area.

  

   Surface features

   Dark marks cover about one-third of the surface of Mars, mostly in a band between latitudes 10 ° and 40 ° S around the planet.  Their distribution is irregular, and their overall pattern has been seen to change from tens to hundreds of times.  The Northern Hemisphere has only three major features of this year; Oxedilia planetia, Certus Major, and a deep collar around the pole - which were once considered shallow seas or vegetation areas.  It is now known that many dark regions of Mars form and change when winds move black sand around the surface or shake dusty areas.  Many bright areas are dusty areas.  The canals that are so prominent on telescopic observations around the early 20th century are not visible in close-up images of the spacecraft.  They were almost certainly imaginary features that observers thought pushed their telescopes to create objects close to the resolution limit.  Other features, such as "wave of darkness" and "blue haze" described by early observers on the telescope, are now known to result from a combination of changes in viewing conditions and surface reflective properties.

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   The moon of the planet and the earth

   What is the relationship between distant planets and perceived extraterrestrial life?  Which is the hottest planet in our solar system?  Put on your thinking hats - and seat belts - and test your astronomy knowledge in this quiz.

   Polar region

   For telescopic observers, the most amazing regular changes on Mars are at the poles.  With the onset of fall in a particular hemisphere, clouds form over the corresponding polar region, and a cap made of frozen carbon dioxide begins to grow.  In the north, the small cap eventually extends to 55 ° latitude, and in the south to the large 50 ° latitude.  Hats off in the spring.  During the summer, the North Carbon Dioxide cap disappears completely, leaving only a small cap of water ice.  In the south a small residual cap composed of carbon dioxide ice and water ice stays in the summer.

   Mars Polar Water Ice Cap

   Mars permanent polar water ice cap, in two views obtained by the Global Surveyor of Mars in addition to one Mars summer in the northern summer (March 1999, left and January 2001, right).  The ringing of the bell, measuring about 1,100 kilometers (680 miles), is the dark sand dunes that mark the northern part of the Vestitus Borealis.  The distinctive appearance of the hat reflects the spiral patterns of scorpions and valleys in the underground regions.  The difference in the coverage of summer frosts can be seen by comparing the images.  Although they may appear small, they indicate large annual changes in the summer budget for the polar cap.

  

   The design of seasonal polar hats has been the subject of debate for almost 200 years.  An early hypothesis - that the hats were made of water ice - can be traced back to the English astronomer William Herschel, who assumed that they existed on Earth.  In 1898, George J. Stony, an Irish scientist, questioned this theory and suggested that caps may contain frozen carbon dioxide, but Dutch American astronomer Gerard Kuiper's 1947 discovery of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Until then, there was no evidence to support this view.

   In 1966, American scientists Robert Layton and Bruce Murray published the results of a numerical model of the thermal atmosphere on Mars, which raised a lot of doubts about the hypothesis of water ice.  Their calculations indicated that, under the conditions of Mars, carbon dioxide would accumulate at poles in the atmosphere, and their model of carbon dioxide caps evolved and shrunk, mimicking the observed behavior of the original caps.  The model predicted that seasonal hats were relatively thin, only a few meters deep near the poles and thinner towards the equator.  Although based on the ease of real conditions on Mars, their results were later confirmed by thermal and spectral measurements taken by the twin Mariner 6 and 7 spacecraft when they flew from Mars in 1969.

   Manifestations of a temporary environment

   Early telescopic observers noted instances in which the surface features of Mars were temporarily unclear.  They observed both white and yellow opacity, which were correctly explained by the thick gas and dust, respectively.  Binocular observers also noted the intermittent disappearance of all black markings, usually around southern summer.  Once again, they were interpreted correctly as a result of global dust storms.  Observations of the spacecraft have confirmed that haze, clouds and fog usually cover the surface.

   Mars: Storm

   Large hurricane system at altitude above the Arctic region of Mars, photographed by the Mars Global Surveyor on June 30, 1999.  The "curl" consists mainly of water ice clouds that meet the orange-brown dust rising from the surface with strong winds.  The North Pole cap is seen on the upper left as a spiral pattern of light and deep bands.

Jupiter Planet

 Jupiter

   Planet

   What is the duration of Jupiter's revolution?

   When was the Jupiter ring discovered?

   Is Jupiter the largest planet in the solar system?

   What is Jupiter made of?

 

  

   Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system and the fifth planet from the Sun.  It is one of the brightest objects in the night sky.  Only the moon, Venus and sometimes Mars are more spectacular.

   Jupiter is photographed by Voyager 1.

   On February 1, 1979, Voyager 1 photographed Jupiter at a distance of 32.7 million kilometers (20.3 million miles).  Notable are the planet's pastel-shaded cloud bands and the Great Red Spot (lower center).

 

   When the ancient astronomers named the planet Jupiter for the gods and Roman rulers of the heavens (also known as Joo), they had no idea of ​​the actual dimensions of the planet, but the name is apt.  Because Jupiter is bigger than all the other planets.  It takes about 12 Earth years to orbit the Sun, and it revolves once every 10 hours, which is twice as fast as the Earth.  Its colorful cloud band can also be seen through a small telescope.  It has a narrow system of circles and 79 known moons, one planet larger than Mercury and three larger than Earth's moon.  Some astronomers speculate that Jupiter's moon Europa is hidden beneath an icy layer of warm water - and possibly some kind of life.

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   Jupiter is the source of internal heat.  It emits more energy than it receives from the sun.  The pressure inside it is so high that the hydrogen in it is in a liquid metal state.  This giant has the strongest magnetic field on any planet, whose magnetic sphere is so large that if viewed from Earth, its apparent diameter would be greater than that of the moon.  Jupiter's system is also a source of intense radio noise explosion, with some frequently emitting more energy than the sun.  However, despite all its superior properties, Jupiter is almost entirely composed of only two elements, hydrogen and helium, and its average density does not exceed the density of water.

   View images of Jupiter taken from the Long Horse Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) aboard the New Horizons spacecraft

   View of Jupiter from images taken by the Long Horizons Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) aboard the New Horizons spacecraft.

 

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   The search for three spacecraft missions since the mid-1970s has led to a dramatic increase in information about the Jovian system - Pioneers 10 and 11 in 1973-74, Voyagers 1 and 2 in 1979, and Galileo Orbiter and  probe, which arrived in Jupiter.  December 1995  The Pioneer spacecraft acted as scouts for Voyagers, showing that Jupiter's radiation atmosphere is tolerable and mapping important features of the planet and its atmosphere.  The sheer number of Voyager devices and the growing sophistication provided so much new information that it was still being analyzed at the start of the Galileo mission.  All previous missions were fly-twenty, but Galileo launched an investigation into Jupiter's atmosphere and then went into orbit around the planet until September 2003 to investigate the entire system.  Last two years.  Other views of the Juvenile system were provided by the Cassini spacecraft toward Saturn in the late 2000's and early 2001's, and in 2007 via the Pluto via the New Horizons spacecraft's flyby.  Observations of the effects of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9's scattered nucleus with Jupiter's atmosphere in 1994 also revealed its structure and composition.

   Jupiter's crescent view

   Jupiter's crescent scene, a collection of three images taken by Voyager 1 on March 24, 1979.

 

   Jupiter has an equatorial diameter of about 143,000 kilometers (88,900 miles) and orbits the Sun at an average distance of 778 million kilometers (483 million miles).  The table shows additional physical and orbital data for Jupiter.  Of particular interest is the planet's low average density of 1.33 grams per cubic centimeter - in contrast to Earth's 5.52 grams per cubic centimeter - combined with its large dimensions and massive and short rotation periods.  The low density and large mass indicate that the structure and composition of Jupiter is in stark contrast to that of the Earth and other inner planets, a reduction that is supported by a detailed study of the giant planet's atmosphere and interior.

   Planetary data for Jupiter

   * The planet needs more time to return to the same position in the sky than the sun, as seen from Earth.

   ** Calculated for the height at which atmospheric pressure is applied 1 time.

   Average distance from the sun 778,340,821 km (5.2 AU)

   The eccentricity of the orbit is 0.048

   Tilt of the orbit towards the lunar eclipse 1.3

   Juvenile year (side period of revolution) 11.86 Earth years

   Visual Intensity Average Opposition at .2.70

   Mean synodic period * 398.88 Earth days

   The average orbital speed is 13.1 kilometers per second

   Equatorial radius ** 71,492 km

   Polar radius ** 66,854 km

   Mass 18.98 × 1026 kg

   Average density 1.33 g / cm3

   Gravity ** 2,479 cm / sec2

   Escape speed 60.2 km per second

   Periods of rotation

   System I (10 سے from equator) 9 hours 50 minutes 30 seconds

   System II (high latitude) 9 hours 55 minutes 41 seconds

   System III (magnetic field) 9 hours 55 minutes 29 seconds

   Tilt the equator to 3.1

   Great Red Spot amplitude 20,000 × 12,000 km

   The magnetic field at the equator is 4.3 ga

   Number of known moons 66

   Planetary ring system 1 key ring;  3 Less dense ingredients

   Three rotation cycles are formed within minutes of each other.  The two periods, called System I (9 hours 50 minutes 30 seconds) and System II (9 hours 55 minutes 41 seconds), have average values ​​and refer to the speed of rotation at the equator and high latitude, respectively, as observed.  Shows.  In the visible layers of clouds on the planet.  Jupiter has no solid surface.  The transfer of liquids from the gaseous atmosphere to the interior takes place at great depths.  Thus the difference in the duration of rotation at different latitudes does not mean that the planet itself rotates at any of these average speeds.  In fact, the actual rotation time of Jupiter is System III (9 hours 55 minutes 29 seconds).  This is the period of rotation of Jupiter's magnetic field, first derived from ground-based observations on the radio wavelength (see below the radio emission) and confirmed by direct measurements of the spacecraft.  This period, which is continuous with 30 years of observation, applies to the large interior of the planet, where the magnetic field is formed.

   Space

   Clouds and great red spots

   Even a small telescope can show a lot of detail on Jupiter.  The region of the planet's atmosphere as seen from Earth consists of several different types of clouds that are separated vertically and horizontally.  Changes in these cloud systems can occur at intervals of a few hours, but a basic pattern of latitude currents has maintained its stability for decades.  It has become customary to describe the planet's appearance in terms of a standard name for its alternating dark bands, called belts, and bright bands, called zones.  However, the mainstream seems to have more persistence than this pattern.  For example, the Southern Hemisphere strip has disappeared several times and even disappeared completely (most recently in 2010), reappearing only months or years later.

   Jupiter's computer-generated compound

   Jupiter's computer-generated mixture shows the visible surface of the entire planet and its characteristic cloud band.  In the upper center of the image, there may be four small deep oval rows in a row in the upper atmosphere, which open up to reveal the cloud layers below.

   Computer-generated concept of Jupiter's tropical cloud layers

   Computer-generated imagery of a portion of Jupiter's tropical cloud layers, replicating a scene between layers.  In general, when viewed from space, Jupiter's cloud surfaces are topographically flat.  This false color image combines data from observations of the Galileo spacecraft on three wavelengths of infrared light, which are absorbed at different levels of the atmosphere, and thus information about cloud heights.  Provides which can be used to add relief to the surface.  The image creates a more complex real cloud layer in a simpler model with lower and lower and upper decks.  There is a small cloud formation just above the lower deck (presented in light blue).  To its left (in red-purple) is a "hotspot", a hole in the lower layer of the cloud into which the Galileo probe entered on December 7, 1995.

 

   Closer views of Jupiter moving to Earth via spacecraft show different shapes of clouds, including many elliptical features reminiscent of cyclonic and anticyclonic storm systems on Earth.  All of these systems are in motion, appearing and disappearing over time, varying in size and location.  There is also a difference in the pastel shades of different colors in the cloud layers - from brown to yellow, through brown and blue-gray, to the great red spot of the well-known salmon, to the largest spot on Jupiter.  , The most prominent, and the longest lasting feature.  The chemical differences in cloud composition, which astronomers consider to be the cause of color changes, are clearly due to the vertical and horizontal separation of the cloud system.

   False colored mosaic of the northern hemisphere of Jupiter

   Wrong-colored mosaic of part of Jupiter's northern hemisphere, created from images taken by the Galileo spacecraft on April 3, 1997.  The north is at the top.  More prominent features are the alternating bands of clouds moving east and west, white ellipses, black spots and turbulent whirlpools.  This scene is one of the first to show the different layers in Jupiter's atmosphere: haze in deep purple when the upper atmosphere clouds break, thin high clouds in light blue, dense high clouds in white, and low in the atmosphere.  Clouds appear in reddish colors.  .

 

   Juvenile meteorology can be compared to the global rotation of the Earth's atmosphere.  A large spiral cloud system on Earth is often spread over several latitudes and is associated with movement around high and low pressure areas.  These cloud systems are much less zonal than Jupiter's cloud systems and move in latitude as well as in latitude.  The local climate on Earth is often linked to the local environment, which determines the different nature of the planet's surface.

   False mosaic of great red spot

   Wrong color mosaic of two long-lived white eggs south of the Great Red Spot, collected from photographs taken by the Galileo spacecraft on February 19, 1997.  These colors represent the relative height and density of different clouds in Jupiter's atmosphere.  Light blue clouds, such as in the center of an egg, are high and thin.  The white clouds around the blue are at the same height but dense.  And above the ellipses there is a deep purple haze that reaches the stratosphere.

 

   Jupiter has no solid surface - hence, no topographic features - and the planet's massive rotation is dominated by latitudinal currents.  The lack of a solid surface with physical boundaries and regions with different thermal capacities makes the persistence of these currents and the associated cloud patterns even more remarkable.  The Great Red Spot, for example, moves longitudinally with respect to the planet's three rotating systems, yet it does not move in latitude.  White eggs found at latitude just south of the Great Red Spot exhibit this pattern.  White eggs of this size are not found anywhere on the planet.  Dark brown clouds, apparently with holes in the bottom of the black cloud, are found almost exclusively near latitude 18 ° N.  The strongest thermal emissions are found in blue-gray or purple regions found in the planet's equator.  Juno's observations revealed that the poles were covered in earth-sized storms.

 

   Despite extensive observations of Voyager, Galileo and Juno spacecraft, the exact nature of Jupiter's unique great red spot was still unknown at the beginning of the 21st century.  On a planet whose lifespan of cloud patterns is usually calculated in days, the Great Red Dot has been observed continuously since 1878 and may even be the same storm that was observed from 1665 to 1713.  Approximately 48,000 km (30,000 miles) from its maximum, space is shrinking by the end of the 19th century, and since 2012 the area, once defaultly elliptical, has become more rounded and 900  Kilometers (580 miles) are shrinking at a rapid rate per year.  Its current size is approximately 16,350 km (10,159 miles) wide, large enough to easily accommodate the Earth.  These large dimensions are probably responsible for the longevity of this feature and possibly its distinctive color.

   Great red spot

   The true color image of Jupiter's great red spot is taken by the Juno spacecraft.

 

   The duration of rotation of the Great Red Spot around the planet does not correspond to any of Jupiter's three orbital periods.  It represents a variable that has not been successfully associated with other Juvenile phenomena.  Voyager's observations revealed that matter inside the spacecraft rotates counterclockwise once every seven days, corresponding to winds of up to 400 kilometers (250 miles) per hour from the hurricane.  Voyager Images also recorded a large number of interactions between the Great Red Spots and very small current interruptions at the same latitude.  The interior of the space is remarkably quiet, with no clear evidence of the expected rise (or departure) of the material from the lower depths.

   Great red spot

   Jupiter's Great Red Spot (upper right) and surrounding area, as seen from Voyager 1 on March 1, 1979.  Below this space is one of the large white eggs associated with this feature.

 

   The Great Red Spot, therefore, appears to be a huge anticyclone, a whirlpool or an eddy with a diameter probably greater than the depth that allows this feature to reach below and above the critical layers of the cloud.  The red spot is heating up Jupiter's upper atmosphere from below and heating it up to hundreds of degrees, which would be expected only from solar heat.  The lower expansion of the spot remains to be observed.

   Jupiter's Great Red Spot

   Pictures of Jupiter's Great Red Spot and its surroundings, taken on Voyager 1, February 25, 1979.  To the left of the white egg, observed since the 1930s, and to the left of the Great Red Spot, there are numerous areas of turmoil.

 

   Cloud composition

   Jupiter's clouds form at different heights in the planet's atmosphere.  With the exception of the upper part of the Great Red Spot, white clouds are the highest, with a cloud top temperature of approximately 120 K (K ؛ 40240 ° F, or 50150 ° C).  These white clouds are composed of frozen ammonia crystals, thus resembling water clouds in the Earth's atmosphere.  Clouds that are widely distributed on the planet are at the lower levels.  They appear to form at temperatures of about 200 K (00100 ° F, −70 ° C), suggesting that they probably contain concentrated ammonium hydro sulfide and that their color is similar to other ammonia sulfur compounds.  Such as ammonium polysulfides.  .  Sulfur compounds are potentially referred to as dyeing agents because the universe contains relatively high sulfur and hydrogen sulfide is absent from the atmosphere of Jupiter, especially above the clouds.

   Jupiter: South Tropical Zone

   Jupiter's southern tropical zone was observed by the Juno spacecraft on May 19, 2017.  Small white clouds consist of water and ammonia ice and form towers 50 km (30 miles) wide and 50 km high.

 

   Jupiter consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.  Under equilibrium conditions - allowing all the elements present at an average temperature to react with each other for the visible part of the Jovian atmosphere - to combine with hydrogen of abundant chemically active elements  Is expected.  Thus it was estimated that methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen sulfide would be present.  With the exception of hydrogen sulfide, all of these compounds have been found through spectroscopic observations from the ground.  The apparent absence of hydrogen sulfide can be understood if it combines with ammonia to form postulate ammonium hydro sulfide clouds.  In fact, hydrogen sulfide was detected in the atmosphere by the Galileo probe.  The absence of identifiable hydrogen sulfide on the clouds, however, suggests that the chemistry that produces colored sulfur compounds (if any) is driven by local electrical emissions rather than ultraviolet radiation from the sun.  In fact, the reasons for the colors on Jupiter are indeterminate, although investigators have developed a number of viable hypotheses.

   Jupiter: Cloud waves.

   Cloud waves on Jupiter as seen by the Juno spacecraft, May 19, 2017.

  

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   Sulfur compounds have also been suggested to describe the dark brown color of ammonia clouds that are still found at lower levels, where the measured temperature is 260 K (8 ° F, −13 ° C).  These clouds are seen through objects that seem to have holes in the mound clouds everywhere.  They appear bright in Jupiter's images, which are made up of its thermal radiation, which is found at a wavelength of five micrometers according to their high temperature.

   The color of the Great Red Spot is attributed to the presence of complex organic molecules, red phosphorus, or any other sulfur compound.  Laboratory experiments support these views, but in each case there are counter-arguments.  Dark regions are found near the tops of white plum clouds near the planet's equator, where temperatures have been measured up to 300 K (80 ° F, 27 ° C).  Despite their bluish-gray appearance, these so-called hot spots have a reddish hue.  They appear to be cloud-free areas - hence their ability to "see" at great depths and measure high temperatures - which exhibit a bluish (reddish scattering of sunlight) reddish material.  Is covered with a thin haze.  That these so-called hot spots occur only near the equator, elliptical dark brown clouds are only about 18 ° N in latitude, and the most prominent red color on the planet appears only in the great red spots that  There is a localization of chemistry that is amazing.  Dynamically dynamic environment.

   Still at lower depths in the atmosphere, astronomers expect to find clouds of water ice and water droplets, both of which contain dilute solutions of ammonium hydroxide.  Nevertheless, when the Galileo spacecraft probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7, 1995, it failed to locate these water clouds, although it survived to a pressure level of 22 bar, which is the sea level on Earth.  Was about 22 times the surface pressure.  The temperature was over 400 K (260 ° F, 130 ° C).  In fact, the investigation did not even detect the upper cloud layers of ammonia and ammonium hydro sulfide.  Unfortunately for the study of Juvenile Cloud Physics, the probe entered the atmosphere in a hot spot where the clouds were missing, probably due to a large-scale meteorological phenomenon related to the down-draft observed in some storms on Earth.  Had happened

   Characteristics of the environment

   Ingredients ratio

   Prior to the deployment of the Galileo probe, astronomers relied on planetary spectrum studies to provide information on the structure, temperature and pressure of the atmosphere.  In a specific version of this technique, called absorption spectroscopy, light or thermal radiation wavelengths from the planet (in colors, in visible light, such as in a rainbow) are transmitted by a scattering element in a spectrograph.  The resulting spectrum consists of discrete intervals, or lines, on which energy is absorbed by the components of the planet's atmosphere.  By measuring the exact wavelength at which it is absorbed and comparing the results with the spectra of gases obtained in the laboratory, astronomers can identify the gases in Jupiter's atmosphere.

   The presence of methane and ammonia in Jupiter's atmosphere was first estimated in 1930, while hydrogen was first discovered in 1960.  Weakened with electromagnetic waves.) Subsequent studies added to the list of new components, including the discovery of the arsenic compound arsenic in 1990.  Observations of environmental research

   Abundance of space for Jupiter

   Gas Percentage Measurement (relative to hydrogen) Jupiter / Sun ratio

   Types of balance

   Hydrogen (H2) 86.4

   Helium 13.56 Helium-4 0.81

   Water (H2O)> 0.026 Oxygen> 0.82

   Methane (CH4) 0.21 Carbon 2.9 ± 0.5

   Ammonia (NH3) 0.07 Nitrogen 3.6 ± 0.5

   Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) 0.007 Sulfur 2.5 ± 0.2

   Hydrogen Deuteroid (HD) 0.004 Deuterium No Deuterium on the Sun

   neon (Ne) 0.002 neon-20 0.10 ± 0.01

   argon (Ar) 0.002 argon-36 2.5 ± 0.5

   Krypton (Kr) 6 × 10−8 krypton-84 2.7 ± 0.5

   xenon (Xe) 6 × 10−9 xenon-132 2.6 ± 0.5

   Unbalanced species

   Phosphine (PH3) 5 × 10−5 Phosphorus 0.8

   Germin (GeH4) 6 × 10−8 Germinium 0.05

   Arsenic (AsH3) 2 × 10−8 Arsenic 0.5

   Carbon monoxide (CO) 1 × 10−7

   Carbon dioxide (CO2) was found in the stratosphere.

   Ethane (C2H6) 1–4 × 10−4 (stratosphere)

   acetylene (C2H2) 3–9 × 10−6 (stratosphere)

   Ethylene (C2H4) 6 × 10−7 (North Pole)

   Benzene (C6H6) 2 × 10−7 (North Pole)

   Propane (C3H4) 2 × 10−7 (North Pole)

   The number of species discovered has not yet been determined.

   Methyl Radical (CH3) (Polar Regions)

   Propane (C3H8)

   diacetylene (C4H2) (polar region)

   If the chemical balance in Jupiter's atmosphere is strictly maintained, one would not expect to find molecules such as carbon monoxide or phosphine in measured abundance.  Nor would one expect traces of acetylene, ethane, and other hydrocarbons found in the stratosphere.  Obviously, there are sources of energy other than molecular kinetic energy according to local temperature.  Solar ultraviolet radiation is responsible for the breakdown of methane, and the subsequent reaction with its fragments produces acetylene and ethane.  In the region of atmospheric motion, lightning (observed by Voyager and Galileo spacecraft) contributes to these processes.  Even deeper, at a temperature of 1,200 K (1,700 ° F, 930 ° C), carbon monoxide is formed by a reaction between methane and water vapor.  The vertical mix must be strong enough to carry the gas to a region where it can be discovered from outer space.  Some carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water come into the atmosphere from icy particles that bombard the planet from space.

   Galileo's research involved a mass spectrometer that first detected atoms and molecules in the atmosphere by first charging them and then expanding them according to their magnetic field.  The advantage of this technique was that it could measure great gases like helium and neon that do not interact with visible and infrared light.  As the probe landed in the air on its parachute, its spectrometer also studied variations in height and frequency.  The experiment eventually detected the previously missing hydrogen sulfide, which was found in the atmosphere less than expected.  Apparently, this cloud-forming gas, like ammonia and water vapor, was eliminated by the above-mentioned down-draft in the upper part of the hot spot.  It was not possible to measure oxygen, as this element is trapped in the water, and the probe did not sink deep enough into a hot spot to reach the region of the atmosphere where these condensable vapors are well mixed.

   The elemental abundance in Jupiter's atmosphere can be compared to the structure of the Sun (see the two columns to the right of the table).  If, like the Sun, the planet is formed by a simple thickening of the early solar nebula, which is thought to have given birth to the solar system, then their basic multiplicity must be the same.  One of the surprising results of Galileo's research was that all the globally mixed elements that he could measure in the Jovian atmosphere showed almost three times the enrichment of their values ​​in the sun compared to hydrogen.  It has important implications for the formation of the planet (see below the Origin of the Jovian system).  Ground spectroscopy shows a large spread of values ​​of other elements (phosphorus, germanium, and arsenic) that are not measured by research.  The abundance of gases that make up this elemental abundance depends on the dynamic phenomena in Jupiter's atmosphere - mainly chemical reactions and vertical mixing.  The importance of helium and neon deficiency is discussed in the following section.

   Another difference with solar values ​​is the presence of deuterium on Jupiter.  This heavy isotope of hydrogen has disappeared from the sun as a result of a nuclear reaction in the solar interior.  Since Jupiter has no such reaction, the ratio of deuterium and hydrogen there must be equal to the ratio of these isotopes in the interstellar gas and dust clouds that formed 4.6 billion years ago to form the solar system.  Since deuterium was formed in the Big Bang, which is said to have begun the expansion of the universe, more accurate measurement of the deuterium / hydrogen ratio on Jupiter will allow calibration of the expansion models.

Saturn Planet

 Astronomy

    Saturn

    Planet

    Who was the first to observe Saturn through a telescope?

    How far is Saturn from Earth?

    What feature is Saturn known for?

    Which is the largest moon of Saturn?

    Is Saturn's light enough to float?

    Saturn, the second largest planet in the solar system's mass and volume, and the sixth closest planet to the Sun.  Saturn in the night sky is easily visible to the naked eye as a flickering point without light.  Even when viewed through a small telescope, the planet surrounded by its magnificent circles is the most spectacular thing in the solar system.

    Saturn

    Saturn and its magnificent rings, in a natural color mix of 126 images taken by the Cassini spacecraft on October 6, 2004.  This view points to the southern hemisphere of Saturn, pointing to the sun.  The shadows cast by the circles appear against the blue northern hemisphere, while the shadow of the planet is presented on the circles to the left.

  

    Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture, who is the father of the Greek god Cronus, one of the Titans, and Zeus (the Roman god Jupiter).  Saturn is also considered to be the slowest moving planet by ancient observers.  At a distance of 9.5 times from the Sun, Saturn takes about 29.5 Earth years to make a solar revolution.  In 1610, the Italian astronomer Galileo first observed Saturn through a telescope.  Although he saw the strange appearance of Saturn's appearance, the low resolution of his instrument did not allow him to understand the true nature of the planet's orbits.

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    Saturn occupies about 60% of Jupiter's volume but only one third of its mass and about 70% of the water of any known object in the solar system.  Hypothetically, Saturn floats in a sea so large that it can catch it.  Saturn and Jupiter both resemble stars because of their large chemical structure dominated by hydrogen.  Also, as in the case of Jupiter, the intense pressure in Saturn's deep interior keeps hydrogen there in a liquid metal state.  However, Saturn's structure and evolutionary history are significantly different from those of its larger counterpart.  Like other giant, or Jupiter, planets - Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune - Saturn has a vast system of moons (natural satellites) and orbits, which can provide clues about its origin and evolution as well as the solar system.  Are  Saturn's moon Titan is distinguished from all other moons in the solar system by the presence of an important atmosphere, which is denser than any of the terrestrial planets except Venus.

    The greatest advances in Saturn's knowledge, as well as those of other planets, have been made by deep space exploration.  Four spacecraft have visited Saturn's system: Pioneer 11 in 1979, Voyagers 1 and 2 in the following two years, and, almost a quarter of a century later, Cassini Hughes, who arrived in 2004.  The first three missions were short-lived flyovers.  But Cassini went into orbit around Saturn for years to investigate, when his Huawei probe parachuted from Titan's atmosphere to its surface, becoming the first spacecraft to land on a moon other than Earth.

    Basic astronomical data

    Saturn orbits the Sun at an average distance of 1,427,000,000 kilometers (887 million miles).  Its closest distance to Earth is about 1.2 billion kilometers (746 million miles), and its phase angle - the angle it forms with the sun and the earth - never exceeds about 6.  Saturn is seen from around the Earth, so it is always almost completely bright.  Only deep space exploration can provide sideline and backlit views.

    Like Jupiter and most other planets, Saturn also has a regular orbit - that is, its motion around the sun is progressive (the direction in which the sun revolves) and a small eccentricity (non-circle) and a lunar eclipse.  Tilt.  Earth orbit plane.  Unlike Jupiter, however, Saturn's axis of rotation is quite tilted - 26.7 ° - towards its orbital plane.  Tilt gives Saturn's season, as it does on Earth, but each season lasts more than seven years.  Another consequence is that Saturn's rings, located along the length of its equator, are presented to observers on Earth at angles ranging from 0 ° (at the edge) to about 30.  A view of Saturn's orbits over a period of 30 years.  Earth-based observers can see the northern part of the circle's sunlight for about 15 years, and then in a similar view, the southern part of the sunlight for the next 15 years.  At short intervals, when the earth crosses the plane of the ring, the circles are all hidden.

    Determining the duration of Saturn's rotation was very difficult.  In its upper upper atmosphere, cloud movements detect different periods, which are shorter for about 10 hours and 10 minutes near the equator and increase to about 30 minutes with some ambiguity at latitudes over 40.  ۔  Scientists have tried to determine the period of rotation of Saturn's deep inner part from its magnetic field, which has its roots in the planet's metallic hydrogen outer core.  However, direct measurement of field rotation was difficult because the field is highly aligned around the rotation axis.  At Voyager's competition, the radio bursts from Saturn, apparently related to minor irregularities in the magnetic field, showed a duration of 10 hours 39.4 minutes.  This value was taken as the period of rotation of the magnetic field.  Measurements made 25 years later by the Cassini spacecraft indicate that the field has been spinning for 6-7 minutes longer.  Solar wind was thought to be responsible for some of the differences between these two measurements of the period of rotation.  Not until Cassini flew inside Saturn's orbits in its final orbit was the period of rotation accurately measured.  By combining the waves seen in the circles of Saturn's gravitational field with slight variations, the period of rotation of the planet was fixed at 10 hours 33 minutes 38 seconds.  The time difference between the rotation periods of Saturn's clouds and its interior is used to estimate wind speeds (see space below).

    Since the outer layers of the four major planets have no solid surface, the values ​​of radius and gravity of these planets are calculated according to the convention at the level at which atmospheric pressure is applied.  By this measure, Saturn's equatorial diameter is 120,536 kilometers (74,898 miles).  In comparison, its polar diameter is only 108,728 kilometers (67,560 miles) or 10% smaller, which makes Saturn the thickest (flattened at the poles) of all the planets in the solar system.  Its thick shape can also be seen in small binoculars.  Although Saturn rotates slightly slower than Jupiter, it is thicker because its rotational speed cancels out a large portion of the planet's gravity at the equator.  The planet's tropical gravity, 896 centimeters (29.4 feet) per second, is only 74% of its polar gravity.  Saturn is 95 times larger than Earth but 766 times larger.  Its average density is 0.69 grams per cubic centimeter, thus only 12% of the earth.  Saturn's escape from the equator - the speed required for an object, which includes individual atoms and molecules, to avoid the planet's gravity on the equator, without further acceleration - about 36 kilometers per second.  (80,000 miles per hour).  -Bar level, compared to 11.2 kilometers per second (25,000 miles per hour) for Earth.  This high value indicates that there has been no significant damage to the environment since the formation of Saturn.  For additional orbital and physical data, see Table.

    Planetary data for Saturn

    * The planet needs more time to return to the same position in the sky than the sun, as seen from Earth.

    ** Calculated for the height at which atmospheric pressure is applied 1 time.

    Average distance from the sun 1,426,666,000 km (9.5 AU)

    The eccentricity of the orbit is 0.054

    The tilt of the orbit is 2.49 کی towards the lunar eclipse

    Year of Saturn (side period of revolution) 29.45 Earth year

    Visual Intensity Average Opposition at 0.7

    Meaning synodic period * 378.10 Earth days

    The average orbital speed is 9.6 kilometers per second

    Equatorial radius ** 60,268 km

    Polar radius ** 54,364 km

    Mass 5.683 × 1026 kg

    Average density 0.69 g / cm3

    Equatorial gravity ** 896 cm / sec 2

    Polar Gravity ** 1,214 cm / sec 2

    Equatorial escape speed ** 35.5 km / s

    Polar escape speed ** 37.4 km / s

    Rotation duration (magnetic field) 10 hours 39 minutes 24 seconds (Voyager round);  Approximately 10 hours 46 minutes (Cassini-Huygens mission)

    Tilt the equator toward 26.7

    The magnetic field strength at the equator is 0.21 gas

    Number of known moons 62

    Planetary ring system 3 large circles consisting of thousands of component circles.  Many less dense circles

    Saturn's atmosphere

    Structure and structure

    Seen from Earth, Saturn's shape is generally pale yellow-brown.  The surface seen through binoculars and in spacecraft images is actually a complex of cloud layers decorated with many small scale features, such as red, brown and white spots, bands, eddy, and whirlpools.  , Which vary in a very short time.  .  Thus Saturn resembles a blender and less active Jupiter.  A notable exception occurred during September-November 1990, when a large, light-colored hurricane system appeared near the equator, measuring more than 20,000 kilometers (12,400 miles), and before it finally faded.  Spread around the equator.  Storms similar to this "Great White Spot" (named after Jupiter's Great Red Spot) have been observed at intervals of about 30 years since the late 19th century.  This is close to Saturn's orbital period of 29.4 years, which shows that these storms are seasonal phenomena.

    Saturn

    Saturn is showing an Earth-sized storm (light-colored patch) in its northern equator, in a comprehensive image taken from observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope on December 1, 1994, two months after the storm was discovered.  Larger storms are relatively rare on Saturn, whose atmosphere is less active than Jupiter's.

  

    Saturn's atmosphere consists mostly of molecular hydrogen and helium.  The exact relative abundance of the two molecules is not well known, since helium must be measured indirectly.  Currently, the best estimate is that 18 to 25 percent of the Earth's atmosphere is massive helium.  The rest is molecular hydrogen and about 2% other molecules.  The amount of helium in hydrogen is lower than in the structure of the sun.  If hydrogen, helium, and other elements were present in the same proportions as the Sun's atmosphere, Saturn's atmosphere would be about 71% hydrogen and 28% helium massive.  According to some theories, helium may have come out of Saturn's outer layers.

    The other major molecules observed in Saturn's atmosphere are methane and ammonia, which are two to seven times more abundant than hydrogen in the Sun.  Hydrogen sulfide and water are also suspected to be present in the deep atmosphere but it is not yet known.  Common molecules that have been found spectroscopically from Earth include phosphine, carbon monoxide and germin.  Such molecules would not be in chemically balanced quantities in a hydrogen-rich environment.  In Saturn's deep atmosphere, under observable clouds, they may produce a reaction to high pressures and temperatures, which are transported to visible ecological regions by stimulus.  Several other unbalanced hydrocarbons are found in Saturn's stratosphere: acetylene, ethane, and possibly propane and methyl acetylene.  All of the latter can be generated by solar ultraviolet radiation through photochemical effects (see photochemical reaction) or at high latitudes, by the energetic electrons emitted from Saturn's radiation belt (see magnetic field and magnetic field below).  ۔  (A similar molecular structure is observed in Jupiter's atmosphere, for which a similar chemical process is estimated; see Jupiter: Proportion of components.)

    On Earth, astronomers have analyzed the turbulence of starlight and radio waves from a spacecraft passing through Saturn's atmosphere to determine the atmospheric temperature at depths equal to 1.3 times the pressure of one millionth of a bar.  I can get information.  At pressures less than 1 millibar, the temperature is almost constant at about 140 to 150 K (K − 8208 −190 ° F, −133 to −123 ° C).  A stratosphere, where the temperature drops continuously with increasing pressure, expands downwards by 1 to 60 millibars, at which point the coldest temperature in Saturn's atmosphere is 82 K (12312 ° F, −191).  C) is reached.  At high pressures (deep surfaces) the temperature rises again.  This region resembles the troposphere, the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, in which an increase in temperature with pressure follows the thermodynamic relationship of gas compression without gain or loss of heat.  The temperature is 135 K (17217 ° F, −138 ° C) at 1 bar pressure, and it continues to rise at high pressure.

    Saturn's visible cloud layer is made up of molecules of tiny compounds that condense in a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.  Although particles formed by photochemical reactions are observed to be suspended in the atmosphere at a high pressure level of 20-70 mm Hg, significant clouds start from the surface where the pressure exceeds 400 mm Hg.  Solid ammonia is thought to form the highest cloud deck.  The base of the crystal ammonia cloud deck is predicted to be located at a depth equal to about 1.7 bars, where ammonia crystals dissolve in hydrogen gas and suddenly disappear.  Almost all information about the deeper layers of clouds has been obtained indirectly by constructing chemical models of the behavior of the compounds that are expected to be present in the gas of the nearby solar compound after the temperature-pressure profile of Saturn's atmosphere.  Successive deep cloud layers are based on 4.7 bar (ammonium hydro sulfide crystal) and 10.9 bar (water ice crystals with water ammonia droplets).  Although all of the clouds mentioned above will be colorless in the pure state, the original clouds of Saturn show different colors of yellow, brown and red.  These colors are apparently caused by chemical impurities, perhaps as photochemical products fall on the clouds from above.  Phosphorus-containing molecular candidates are also colored.

    Saturn's large axial tilt results in darker shadows over the winter hemisphere, further dimming the faint winter sunlight.  Cassini images of sunlight bushes in the Northern Hemisphere during the winter revealed a surprisingly clear blue atmosphere, probably the result of a comparative reduction in photochemical haze production in the shadow of circles.

    Even at extremely high depth pressures in Saturn's atmosphere, the minimum ambient temperature of 82 K is so high that molecular hydrogen as a gas and a liquid cannot be in equilibrium at the same time.  Thus, there is no specific boundary between the shallow, visible atmosphere, where hydrogen behaves primarily as a gas, and between the deep atmosphere, where it resembles a liquid.  Unlike the Earth's case, Saturn's troposphere does not end at a solid surface but extends tens of thousands of kilometers under seemingly visible clouds, becoming permanently denser and warmer, eventually reaching a temperature of thousands of Kelvin.  Goes and the pressure is more than a million times.

    Dynamics

    Like other major planets, Saturn has an atmosphere dominated by zonal (east-west) flow.  It appears to be a pattern of Jupiter-like light and deep cloud bands, although Saturn's bands are more subtle in color and wider near the equator.  There is so little contradiction in the features of cloud tops that they are best studied by spacecraft.

    Since Saturn has no surface, its winds must be measured against any other frame of reference.  Like Jupiter, winds are measured by the rotation of Saturn's magnetic field.  In this frame, virtually all of Saturn's atmospheric currents are eastward - in the direction of rotation.  At latitudes below 20 the equator represents a particularly active eastward flow with a maximum speed of approximately 470 meters per second (1,700 kilometers [1,050 miles] per hour) but at such intervals.  Also when the speed is 200 meters per second (700 kilometers [450] miles] per hour) slowly.  This feature is similar to the one on Jupiter but is twice as wide in latitude and moves four times faster.  In contrast, most winds on Earth operate in tropical storms, where in extreme cases the constant speed can exceed 67 meters per second (240 kilometers [150 miles] per hour).

    Saturn's currents are remarkably consistent with Saturn's equator.  That is, each of the given north latitudes usually has a counterpart at the same southern latitude.  Strong eastward currents - with speeds greater than 100 meters per second (360 kilometers [225 miles] per hour) relative to the east - are observed at 46 ° N and S and approximately 60 ° N and S.  Flows to the west, which are seen approximately at stationary, 40 °, 55 °, and 70 ° N and S in the frame of reference of the magnetic field.  After Voyager's competitions, improvements to Earth-based instruments allowed Saturn's clouds to be observed at a distance.  Formed over several years, they agreed with detailed Voyager observations of zonal flows and thus confirmed their stability over time.  How to maintain the flow of jets in the presence of environmental friction is not known.

    Severe hurricane-like cyclones are found within about 11 کے of Saturn's north and south poles.  At the South Pole, the whirlpool's hot eye has a diameter of 2,000 km (1,200 miles) and is surrounded by clouds 50 to 70 kilometers (30 to 40 miles) high above the polar clouds.  In the southern hemisphere, the main eyes of tropical storms are also warm, flowing clockwise and ringing from high clouds, but all this on a very small scale.  Unlike hurricanes on Earth, there is no ocean below Saturn's whirlpool.  The first jet south of North Whirlpool at 75 ° N follows a hexagonal pattern around the planet.  Cloud features rotate around the hexagon at a speed of about 100 meters per second (360 kilometers [220 miles] per hour).  Similar angular patterns have been observed in buckets of rotating fluids and may have been generated by talking waves.  Why the hexagonal wave is stable and how it formed in Saturn's atmosphere at this particular latitude is not yet understood.

    A full variety of small-scale features have also been observed in the atmosphere.  Particularly surprising are the approximately two dozen similar sizes (1,500 km [930 mi] in diameter) of cloud clearing at approximately equal distances from 33.5 ° N to 100 ° longitude.  In the infrared images of Saturn's thermal emissions, these clearing beads appear as a bright string.  "Spread over the entire planet. In the Southern Hemisphere, the emission of shortwave radio from celestial storms, which are hundreds of times more severe than storms on Earth and last for weeks to months, is often measured at 35 ° S.  Thunderbolt centers are associated with the characteristics of thick light-colored clouds. Strong stimulus driven by water vapor is generated. Cloud clearing in the north and lightning storms in the south are both intense.  Speed ​​is the zone of westerly winds, which travels against most other zonal currents moving on the planet.

    The general north-south harmony suggests that zonal flows may be connected in some way to the inner depths.  Theoretical modeling of deep-moving fluid planets such as Saturn indicates that there is a differential rotation with cylinders connected to the planet's average rotation axis (see figure).  Thus Saturn's atmosphere can be made up of a series of coaxial cylinders connected north-south, each rotating at a unique speed, giving rise to visible zonal jets on the surface.  These cylindrical layers do not begin to orbit together at a depth of about 9,000 km (5,600 miles), which is much deeper than the point of rotation of Jupiter.

    Magnetic field and magnetic field

    Saturn's magnetic field resembles a simple dopole, or bar magnet, its north-south axis is connected to the center of the magnetic dopole in the center of the planet within 1 کے of Saturn's rotating axis.  The polarity of the field, like that of Jupiter, is the opposite of the current field of the Earth - that is, the field lines emerge in the northern hemisphere of Saturn and re-enter the planet in the southern hemisphere (see Earth: geomagnetic field and magnetic sphere).  A normal magnetic compass on Saturn will point south.  Saturn's field deviates from a simple dupole field with measurements.  It manifests itself in a north-south equilibrium and in a slightly higher polar field than the pure dupole model predicted.  At Saturn's once "surface" level, the maximum polar field is 0.8 gas (north) and 0.7 gas (south), which is very similar to the Earth's polar surface field, while the equatorial field is at the Earth's surface.  0.2 gas compared to 0.3 gas.  .  Jupiter's equatorial field, at 4.3 degrees, is 20 times stronger than Saturn's.  If one represents Saturn's magnetic field, such as a simple current loop with a specific magnetic moment (see magnetic dopole), then that magnetic moment is about 600 times that of Earth, whereas Jupiter's magnetic moment is about Earth.  20,000 times more than

    Saturn's magnetic field is created by fluid movements in the electrically moving part of the planet's interior.  This region, in which hydrogen is present in a liquid metal state around a central rock center, consists of the inner half of the planet.  Compared to Jupiter, Saturn has a smaller mass and volume than this rotating metal fluid, which may explain in part why Saturn's magnetic field is weaker.  Jupiter's interior is also warmer, so fluid movements in its interior may be more intense, possibly increasing the difference in field forces.

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    Saturn's magnetic sphere is a teardrop-shaped region of space around the planet where the behavior of charged particles, mostly coming from the sun, dominates the planet's magnetic field rather than the interplanetary magnetic field.  The teardrop's round direction extends toward the sun, forming a boundary or magnetopos, in which the solar wind travels at a distance of about 20 Saturn's radius (1,200,000 km [750,000 miles]) from the center of the planet, but with considerable  Solar wind pressure due to fluctuations.  In the opposite direction to Saturn, a magnetic sphere is drawn into a very large magnetic tail that stretches a great distance.

    Saturn's inner magnetic sphere, like Earth and Jupiter's magnetic fields, travels in spiral paths along magnetic field lines, trapping highly stable charged particles, mostly a stable population of protons.  These particles form a belt around Saturn, similar to the Earth's Allen belt.  Unlike the case of Earth and Jupiter, Saturn's charged particle population is largely eliminated by the absorption on the surfaces of solid objects that rotate within field lines.  Voyager's data show that there are "holes" in the particle population on the plains that connect the circles and orbits of the moon within the magnetic sphere.

    Saturn's moons Titan and Hyperion revolve in orbit at a distance close to the minimum magnitude of the magnetic sphere, and they occasionally cross magnetopes and travel beyond Saturn's magnetic sphere.  Energy-charged charged particles trapped in Saturn's outer magnetic sphere collide with neutral atoms in Titan's upper atmosphere and energize them, causing a cut in the atmosphere.  Cassini orbit saw the halo of such energetic atoms.

    Saturn has ultraviolet auroras which are produced by the effect of energetic particles on the atomic and molecular hydrogen from the magnetic sphere in Saturn's polar atmosphere.  Ultraviolet images of Saturn, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope orbiting the Earth in the late 1990s and early 21st century, captured the orbital circles around the poles.  It clearly demonstrates the superior harmony of Saturn's magnetic field and reveals the details of how Aurora reacts to the solar wind and the sun's magnetic field.